Staphylococcus aureus

Description

Staphylococcus aureus provides information on food borne outbreaks of disease and their impact on human health. It is for anyone interested in the features of the pathogen, and its food safety aspects, as well as its prevalence and possible control and eradication options. This is a practical reference for those in the food industry, but also includes some theoretical information useful for advising.

The book introduces detailed features and molecular biology of the pathogen, as well as selective methods of detection, prevention and eradication essential for research. It covers methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus for food related industries, information on genetic lineages, cell wall components, cell division machinery, molecular characterization, and capillary electrophoresis for detecting and characterizing staphylococcus aureus.

Includes information on established and novel antibiotic agents for experimental studies and methods of control and eradication
Presents use cases of outbreak studies in molecular and cell biology
Provides summary points of detection methods and applicability of those methods to other foodborne pathogens
Covers the Staphylococcus aureus’ mode of transmission, detection, biology and impact on foodborne illness

Front Cover 2
Staphylococcus aureus 3
Staphylococcus aureus 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
List of Contributors 17
Preface 19
1 - INTRODUCTION 21
- 1 - STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—A FOODBORNE PATHOGEN: EPIDEMIOLOGY, DETECTION, CHARACTERIZATION, PREVENTION, AND CONTROL: AN OVERVIEW 23
  - 1. INTRODUCTION 23
  - 2. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—A BRIEF OVERVIEW 23
  - 3. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AS FOODBORNE PATHOGEN—THE INDUSTRIALIZED WORLD PERSPECTIVE 25
  - 4. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AS FOODBORNE PATHOGEN—THE PERSPECTIVE FROM THE DEVELOPING WORLD 26
  - 5. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—A FOODBORNE PATHOGEN: EPIDEMIOLOGY, DETECTION, CHARACTERIZATION, PREVENTION, AND CONTROL—WHAT THE BOOK 26
  - 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 27

Front Cover 2
Staphylococcus aureus 3
Staphylococcus aureus 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
List of Contributors 17
Preface 19
1 - INTRODUCTION 21
- 1 - STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—A FOODBORNE PATHOGEN: EPIDEMIOLOGY, DETECTION, CHARACTERIZATION, PREVENTION, AND CONTROL: AN OVERVIEW 23
  - 1. INTRODUCTION 23
  - 2. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—A BRIEF OVERVIEW 23
  - 3. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AS FOODBORNE PATHOGEN—THE INDUSTRIALIZED WORLD PERSPECTIVE 25
  - 4. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AS FOODBORNE PATHOGEN—THE PERSPECTIVE FROM THE DEVELOPING WORLD 26
  - 5. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—A FOODBORNE PATHOGEN: EPIDEMIOLOGY, DETECTION, CHARACTERIZATION, PREVENTION, AND CONTROL—WHAT THE BOOK 26
  - 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 27
  - REFERENCES 28
- II - CHARACTERISTICS AND DETECTION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 31
  - 2 - PATHOGENESIS OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 33
    - 1. INTRODUCTION 33
    - 2. IMPACT ON HEALTH 33
      - 2.1 COLONIZATION AND ITS CLINICAL IMPACT 34
      - 2.2 CLINICAL SYNDROMES 35
    - 3. GENETIC BASIS FOR VIRULENCE 35
      - 3.1 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS PHAGES 36
      - 3.2 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS PATHOGENICITY ISLANDS 37
    - 4. REGULATORY SYSTEMS 37
      - 4.1 GLOBAL REGULATORS 37
        
        4.1.1 Regulatory RNAs 38
      - 5. ADHESION 39
        
        5.1 CELL WALL–ANCHORED PROTEINS 39
        
        6. BACTERIAL INTERFERENCE 41
        
        5.2 EXTRACELLULAR SUGAR-BASED POLYMERS 41
        
        5.2.1 Teichoic Acids 41
        
        7. AGGRESSIVE POTENTIAL: TOXINS 42
        
        7.1 PORE-FORMING PROTEIN TOXINS (MEMBRANE-DAMAGING TOXINS) 42
        
        7.3 ENZYMATIC ACTING TOXINS 43
        
        7.2 SUPERANTIGENS AND OTHER NONMEMBRANE-DAMAGING TOXINS THAT INTERFERE WITH RECEPTOR FUNCTION 43
        
        8. EVASION: BLOCKING AND ESCAPING THE HOST’S IMMUNE RESPONSE 44
        
        8.1 RESISTING PHAGOCYTIC ACTIVITY 44
        
        8.2 INTERNALIZATION/INVASION AND INTRACELLULAR PERSISTENCE 45
        
        REFERENCES 46
        
        9. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE 46
      - 3 - STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ENTEROTOXINS 59
        
        2. SUPERFAMILY OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS AND STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXIN-LIKE TOXINS 59
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 59
        
        3. GENE LOCATIONS OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS AND STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXIN-LIKE TOXINS 61
        
        3.1 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS PATHOGENICITY ISLANDS 61
        
        3.4 STAPHYLOCOCCAL CASSETTE CHROMOSOME 63
        
        3.2 GENOMIC ISLANDS (ΥSA) 63
        
        3.5 PROPHAGE 63
        
        3.3 ENTEROTOXIN GENE CLUSTER 63
        
        3.6 PLASMID 64
        
        4. MOLECULAR STRUCTURES OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS AND STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXIN-LIKE TOXINS 64
        
        5. SUPERANTIGENIC ACTIVITY OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS AND STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXIN-LIKE TOXINS 67
        
        6. BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EMETIC ACTIVITY OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS AND STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXIN-LIKE TOXINS 69
        
        7. CONCLUSION 70
        
        REFERENCES 70
      - 4 - ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE PROPERTIES OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 77
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 77
        
        2. Β-LACTAM RESISTANCE 77
        
        3. TETRACYCLINE RESISTANCE 83
        
        4. PHENICOL RESISTANCE 84
        
        5. MACROLIDE–LINCOSAMIDE–STREPTOGRAMIN RESISTANCE 84
        
        5.1 COMBINED RESISTANCE TO MACROLIDES, LINCOSAMIDES, AND STREPTOGRAMIN B 85
        
        5.2 COMBINED RESISTANCE TO MACROLIDES AND STREPTOGRAMIN B 85
        
        5.3 RESISTANCE TO MACROLIDES ONLY 86
        
        5.6 RESISTANCE TO STREPTOGRAMIN B ONLY 86
        
        5.4 RESISTANCE TO LINCOSAMIDES ONLY 86
        
        5.5 RESISTANCE TO STREPTOGRAMIN A ONLY 86
        
        5.7 COMBINED RESISTANCE TO LINCOSAMIDES, PLEUROMUTILINS, AND STREPTOGRAMIN A 87
        
        6. AMINOGLYCOSIDE RESISTANCE 87
        
        7. AMINOCYCLITOL RESISTANCE 88
        
        8. STREPTOTHRICIN RESISTANCE 88
        
        9. OXAZOLIDINONE RESISTANCE 89
        
        10. TRIMETHOPRIM RESISTANCE 89
        
        12. FUSIDIC ACID RESISTANCE 90
        
        13. MUPIROCIN RESISTANCE 90
        
        11. SULFONAMIDE RESISTANCE 90
        
        14. FLUOROQUINOLONE RESISTANCE 90
        
        15. RIFAMPICIN RESISTANCE 93
        
        16. GLYCOPEPTIDE RESISTANCE 93
        
        17. CONCLUSION 95
        
        ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 95
        
        REFERENCES 95
      - 5 - BIOFILM FORMATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 107
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 107
        
        2. BIOFILMS—AN OVERVIEW 107
        
        3. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BIOFILMS 108
        
        3.1 INITIAL ADHERENCE 108
        
        3.2 BIOFILM DEVELOPMENT: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX 110
        
        3.2.1 Proteins 111
        
        3.2.2 Polysaccharides 111
        
        3.2.3 Extracellular DNA 112
        
        3.3 BIOFILM DISPERSION 113
        
        4. WHY BEING IN A BIOFILM? ADVANTAGES OF MULTICELLULAR STRUCTURES 114
        
        4.1 CELL–CELL COMMUNICATION 114
        
        4.3 INCREASED DISPERSAL CAPACITY 115
        
        4.2 INCREASED RESISTANCE TO EXTERNAL STIMULUS 115
        
        5. MULTISPECIES STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—CARRYING BIOFILMS 115
        
        6. BIOFILM PRODUCING STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY 116
        
        7. CONCLUSION 117
        
        REFERENCES 117
      - 6 - METHODS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION, CHARACTERIZATION, AND TRACKING THE SPREAD OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 125
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 125
        
        2. IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BY PHENOTYPIC METHODS 126
        
        2.1 CULTURE-BASED METHODS AND BIOCHEMICAL TESTS 126
        
        2.2 AUTOMATED SYSTEMS 128
        
        2.3 MATRIX-ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION/IONIZATION TIME-OF-FLIGHT 129
        
        2.4 ANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING 130
        
        3. IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BY GENOTYPIC METHODS 132
        
        3.1 POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION/REAL-TIME POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION-BASED METHODS 132
        
        3.2 MICROARRAY-BASED METHODS 133
        
        3.3 SEQUENCE-BASED METHODS INCLUDING NEXT-GENERATION SEQUENCING TECHNIQUES 134
        
        4. GENOTYPING METHODS FOR MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 135
        
        4.1 SPA TYPING 136
        
        4.2 MULTILOCUS SEQUENCE TYPING 136
        
        4.3 MULTIPLE-LOCUS VARIABLE NUMBER OF TANDEM REPEAT ANALYSIS 137
        
        4.4 PULSED-FIELD GEL ELECTROPHORESIS 137
        
        4.5 STAPHYLOCOCCAL CASSETTE CHROMOSOME MEC TYPING 138
        
        5. METHODS FOR DETECTION OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS 138
        
        5.1 IMMUNOLOGICAL METHODS 139
        
        5.2 MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES 140
        
        5.3 OTHER STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXIN DETECTION METHODS 141
        
        6. CONCLUSION 141
        
        REFERENCES 142
      - III - STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS FROM FARM TO FORK—FOOD SAFETY ASPECTSPART 147
        
        7 - STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AS A LEADING CAUSE OF FOODBORNE OUTBREAKS WORLDWIDE 149
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 149
        
        2. HISTORY 149
        
        3. CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIOR OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN THE FOOD ENVIRONMENT 151
        
        3.1 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BIOTYPES AND RESERVOIRS 152
        
        3.2 MEANS OF CONTAMINATION 153
        
        3.3 POTENTIAL FOR METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CONTAMINATION AND TRANSMISSION 155
        
        4. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE GROWTH OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN FOOD 155
        
        4.1 WATER ACTIVITY (AW) 156
        
        4.2 PH 157
        
        4.3 REDOX POTENTIAL 157
        
        4.4 TEMPERATURE 158
        
        4.5 NUTRITIONAL FACTORS AND BACTERIAL ANTAGONISM 158
        
        5. STAPHYLOCOCCAL FOOD POISONING OUTBREAKS: SYMPTOMATOLOGY; REPORTING SYSTEM INCLUDING THE US AND EU CONTROL; MONITORING SCHEMES 158
        
        5.1 SYMPTOMATOLOGY AND TOXIC DOSE 158
        
        5.2 REPORTING SYSTEM AND OCCURRENCE OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL FOOD POISONING OUTBREAKS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION 159
        
        5.3 REPORTING SYSTEM AND OCCURRENCE IN THE UNITED STATES 160
        
        6. CONCLUSION 161
        
        REFERENCES 161
        
        8 - STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS FROM FARM TO FORK: IMPACT FROM A VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH PERSPECTIVE 167
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 167
        
        2. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN ANIMALS USED FOR FOOD PRODUCTION 167
        
        2.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW 167
        
        2.2 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN POULTRY 168
        
        2.4 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN CATTLE AND SMALL RUMINANTS 169
        
        2.3 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN SWINE 169
        
        3. ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE IN STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND THE EMERGENCE OF METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 170
        
        3.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW 170
        
        3.2 METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ASSOCIATED WITH POULTRY 171
        
        3.4 METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ASSOCIATED WITH CATTLE 172
        
        3.3 METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ASSOCIATED WITH SWINE 172
        
        3.5 METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN LIVESTOCK—FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SELECTION AND SPREAD 173
        
        4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 173
        
        REFERENCES 174
        
        9 - STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN WORKERS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY 183
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 183
        
        2. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS COLONIZATION IN HUMANS 184
        
        2.1 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CARRIAGE 184
        
        2.2 METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN GENERAL AND HOSPITAL-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 185
        
        2.3 COMMUNITY-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 185
        
        2.4 LIVESTOCK-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 186
        
        3. MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY OF COLONIZING STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ISOLATES 186
        
        3.2 CLONALITY OF HOSPITAL-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 186
        
        3.1 CLONALITY OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 186
        
        3.3 CLONALITY OF COMMUNITY-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 187
        
        3.4 CLONALITY OF LIVESTOCK-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 187
        
        4. COLONIZING STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS: THEIR ENTEROTOXIGENIC POTENTIAL AND INVOLVE 187
        
        4.1 ENTEROTOXIN GENE CONTENT OF COLONIZING STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 187
        
        4.2 COLONIZING ENTEROTOXIGENIC STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AS CAUSE OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL FOODBORNE OUTBREAKS 188
        
        5. ARE WORKERS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY DIFFERENT? 189
        
        5.2 BUTCHERS AND FOOD HANDLERS EXPOSED TO RAW MEAT 190
        
        5.1 WORKERS EXPOSED TO LIVING ANIMALS AT SLAUGHTERHOUSES 190
        
        5.3 FOOD HANDLERS NOT EXPOSED TO THE PREVIOUS RISK FACTORS 191
        
        5.3.1 Africa 192
        
        5.3.2 Latin America 193
        
        5.3.3 Asia 194
        
        5.3.5 Europe, North America, and Oceania 195
        
        5.3.4 Middle East 195
        
        6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 196
        
        REFERENCES 197
        
        10 - MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS LINEAGES IN THE ANIMAL–HUMAN INTERFACE 209
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 209
        
        2. GENOME STRUCTURE OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 210
        
        3. THE EMERGENCE OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS LINEAGE CC398 211
        
        3.1 HISTORICAL ASPECTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CC398. A PROBLEM OF PUBLIC HEALTH 211
        
        3.2 PIG ORIGIN OF METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CC398: FIRST HYPOTHESIS 212
        
        3.3 ORIGIN AND HOST ADAPTATION: FIRST JUMP FROM HUMANS TO PIGS 213
        
        4. NEW STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CC398 EMERGING TOPICS ARISING IN THE LAST FEW YEARS 214
        
        4.1 LIVESTOCK-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CC398 IN HUMANS WITHOUT ANIMAL CONTACT. HUMAN-TO-HUMAN TRAN 214
        
        4.2 SECOND JUMP FROM ANIMALS TO HUMANS. ACQUISITION OF IMMUNE EVASION CLUSTER: READAPTATION TO HUMANS 215
        
        4.3 EMERGING OF METHICILLIN-SUSCEPTIBLE STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CC398, MAINLY OF SPA-TYPE T571 216
        
        4.4 ACQUISITION OF PANTON–VALENTINE LEUKOCIDIN BY CC398 STRAINS (METHICILLIN-SUSCEPTIBLE STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND METHICILLIN-R 217
        
        4.5 A NOVEL HYBRID LIVESTOCK-ASSOCIATED METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CC9/CC398 GENOTYPE AND FOODBORNE TRANSMISSIO 217
        
        5. OTHER STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS LINEAGES AT THE ANIMAL–HUMAN INTERFACE 218
        
        5.1 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS LINEAGE CC9 218
        
        5.2 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS LINEAGE CC130 219
        
        5.3 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS LINEAGE CC97 221
        
        5.4 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS LINEAGE CC1 222
        
        6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 222
        
        ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 223
        
        REFERENCES 223
        
        IV - PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN THE FOOD CHAIN 235
        
        11 - HYGIENE PRINCIPLES TO AVOID CONTAMINATION/CROSS-CONTAMINATION IN THE KITCHEN AND DURING FOOD PROCESSING 237
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 237
        
        2. GOOD HYGIENE PRAXIS AND HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT PRINCIPLES 238
        
        3. TEMPERATURE-RELATED FOOD HYGIENE PRINCIPLES 239
        
        3.1 MAINTENANCE OF THE COLD CHAIN 240
        
        3.1.1 Maintenance of the Cold Chain in Food Businesses 241
        
        3.1.1.2 Monitoring Procedures in the Cold Chain 241
        
        3.1.1.1 Critical Limits in the Cold Chain 241
        
        3.1.1.4 Verification of the Cold Chain Maintenance 242
        
        3.1.1.3 Corrective Actions in the Cold Chain 242
        
        3.1.1.5 Records of the Cold Chain 243
        
        3.1.2 Maintenance of the Cold Chain During Transport 243
        
        3.1.2.1 Incoming Goods Inspection 243
        
        3.1.3 Maintenance of the Cold Chain During Thawing Processes 244
        
        3.1.4 Maintenance of the Cold Chain at Consumer’s Households 244
        
        3.2 HOLDING TEMPERATURES 245
        
        4. PERSONAL HYGIENE AND TRAINING OF STAFF 245
        
        4.1 PERSONAL HYGIENE 246
        
        4.1.1 Washing and Disinfection of Hands 246
        
        4.1.2 Hygiene Clothing 247
        
        4.1.2.1 Face Masks 249
        
        4.2 TRAINING 249
        
        5. PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN CONSUMER’S HOUSEHOLDS 250
        
        6. CONCLUSION 251
        
        REFERENCES 252
        
        12 - INACTIVATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN FOODS BY THERMAL AND NONTHERMAL CONTROL STRATEGIES 255
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 255
        
        2. INACTIVATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BY THERMAL PROCESSING 256
        
        2.1 INACTIVATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BY NEW THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES 259
        
        2.1.1 Ohmic Heating 259
        
        2.1.2 Microwave and Radio Frequency Heating 259
        
        2.1.3 Infrared Heating 262
        
        2.1.4 Pressure-Assisted Thermal Processing 263
        
        3. INACTIVATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BY NOVEL NONTHERMAL TECHNOLOGIES 265
        
        3.1 ULTRASOUND 265
        
        3.2 HIGH-PRESSURE PROCESSING 265
        
        3.3 PULSED ELECTRIC FIELDS 266
        
        3.4 ULTRAVIOLET 266
        
        3.5 PULSED LIGHT 266
        
        3.6 IRRADIATION 267
        
        3.7 NONTHERMAL PLASMA (COLD PLASMA) 267
        
        4. INACTIVATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BY NONTHERMAL TECHNOLOGIES COMBINED WITH HIGH TEMPERATURE 267
        
        5. CONCLUSION 268
        
        REFERENCES 269
        
        13 - MITIGATION STRATEGIES TO COMBAT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN THE FOOD CHAIN: INTERNATIONAL FOOD STANDARDS, GUIDELINES, AND CODE 277
        
        1. INTRODUCTION 277
        
        2.1 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 279
        
        2.1.2 The United States Department of Agriculture 279
        
        2.1.2.1 General Policy/Practice 279
        
        2.1.1 Food and Drug Administration 279
        
        2.1.1.1 General Policy/Practice 279
        
        2.3 THE EUROPEAN UNION 281
        
        2.2 CANADA 281
        
        2.4 TURKEY 282
        
        2.5 RUSSIA AND THE EURASIAN CUSTOMS UNION 282
        
        2.6 THE GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL 283
        
        2.7 CHINA 283
        
        2.8 JAPAN 284
        
        2.9 INDIA 284
        
        2.10 PERU 284
        
        2.11 SOUTH KOREA 285
        
        2.12 MEXICO 285
        
        2.14 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 286
        
        2.13 SOUTH AFRICA 286
        
        3. SAFEGUARDING FOODS 286
        
        3.1 RETAIL FOODS AND FOODSERVICE PRACTICES 287
        
        3.2 DAIRY FOODS 287
        
        3.3 SEAFOOD 289
        
        4. MICROBIAL RISK ASSESSMENT PLANS TO REDUCE STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CONTAMINATION 290
        
        5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 291
        
        ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 291
        
        ANNEX 292
        
        REFERENCES 307
        
        FURTHER READING 312
        
        Index 313
        
        B 313
        
        C 313
        
        A 313
        
        F 314
        
        E 314
        
        H 315
        
        L 315
        
        I 315
        
        G 315
        
        K 315
        
        O 316
        
        M 316
        
        P 316
        
        N 316
        
        R 317
        
        S 317
        
        U 318
        
        Y 318
        
        V 318
        
        T 318
        
        W 318
        
        Back Cover 319

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