pH of the Skin: Issues and Challenges

Cover 2
Front Matter 5
Contents 7
Preface 9
The Acid Mantle: A Myth or an Essential Part of Skin Health? 10
- What Is Already Known? 10
- Abstract 10
- What Does This Text Add? 10
- The Acid-Base Concept 11
- The Acid Mantle 13
- Topical Influencing of the Skin Surface pH 14
- pH and Buffering Capacity of Topical Formulations 15
- Measurement of Skin Surface pH 16
- Conclusion 16
- References 17

Cover 2
Front Matter 5
Contents 7
Preface 9
The Acid Mantle: A Myth or an Essential Part of Skin Health? 10
- What Is Already Known? 10
- Abstract 10
- What Does This Text Add? 10
- The Acid-Base Concept 11
- The Acid Mantle 13
- Topical Influencing of the Skin Surface pH 14
- pH and Buffering Capacity of Topical Formulations 15
- Measurement of Skin Surface pH 16
- Conclusion 16
- References 17
Buffering Capacity 20
- What Is Already Known? 20
- What Does This Text Add? 20
- Abstract 20
- pH, Buffer Definition, and Function 21
- pH Buffer in Nature 21
- pH Buffers in Humans 21
- pH and Buffer of the Healthy Skin 22
- Skin pH, Buffer Capacity, and Mechanisms 22
- pH, Buffer, and Antimicrobial Effects 23
- pH and Buffer Capacity in Inflammatory Skin Diseases 23
- Regulation of Barrier Function, Epidermal Lipids, Differentiation, and Desquamation 23
- pH after Experimental Skin Barrier Disruption 23
- Reducing Skin pH as a Therapeutic Tool in Wound Healing, Aged Skin, and in Skin Diseases 24
- References 26
Measurement of Skin Surface pH 28
- What Does This Text Add? 28
- Abstract 28
- What Is Already Known? 28
- Measuring Methods 29
- Factors Influencing Skin pH and Its Measurement 29
- The Planar Glass Electrode Method 30
- Disclaimer 33
- References 33
- Conclusion 33
Skin Surface pH in Newborns: Origin andConsequences 35
- Abstract 35
- What Is Already Known? 35
- What Does This Text Add? 35
- Acid Mantel Formation after Birth 37
- Factors Affecting Skin Surface pH Formation in Newborns 38
- Conclusion 40
- References 40
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Affecting Skin Surface pH 42
- Abstract 42
- What Is Already Known? 42
- What Does This Text Add? 42
- Emollients/Dermatological Products 44
- Materials and Methods 46
- Results 49
- References 55
Gender, Age, and Ethnicity as FactorsThat Can Influence Skin pH 57
- Abstract 57
- What Is Already Known? 57
- Gender 57
- What Does This Text Add? 57
- Age 59
- Ethnicity 60
- References 61
Endogenous Factors That Can Influence Skin pH 63
- Abstract 63
- What Is Already Known? 63
- pH as a “Universal Signal and Effector” 63
- What Does This Text Add? 63
- Factors Involved in the Development of the Acidic pH of the Stratum Corneum 64
- Ionotropic pH Sensors and Transducers 65
- Metabotropic pH-Sensing Receptors 67
- Conclusions 69
- References 69
Lipids in the Skin and pH 73
- What Is Already Known? 73
- Lipid Composition of the Stratum Corneum 73
- What Does This Text Add? 73
- Abstract 73
- pH Gradient in the SC 74
- Synthesis of SC Lipids 74
- Impact of pH on SC Lipids 75
- References 77
Influence of pH on Skin Stem Cells and Their Differentiation 80
- Abstract 80
- What Is Already Known? 80
- What Does This Text Add? 80
- Extracellular pH and Stem Cell Pluripotency 81
- Intracellular pH and Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation 81
- pH and Mesenchymal Stem Cell Differentiation 82
- pH and Cancer Cells 83
- pH and Epithelial Stem Cells 84
- Epidermal Stem Cells, Their Differentiation, and pH 84
- Conclusion 85
- Effects of pH on Stem Cells During Wound Healing 85
- References 86
The Influence of Calcium on the Skin pH and Epidermal Barrier During Aging 88
- Abstract 88
- What Is Already Known? 88
- What Does This Text Add? 88
- The Epidermal Barrier and Its Dependence on Calcium 89
- CE Formation in the Aging Process 89
- Skin pH in the Aging Process 90
- The pH Backlash on Lipid Synthesis and Skin Desquamination 93
- Conclusion 94
- References 94
pH and Microbial Infections 96
- What Is Already Known? 96
- What Does This Text Add? 96
- Abstract 96
- Mycosis 97
- Diaper and Incontinence Dermatitis 99
- Wound Healing 100
- Acknowledgement 102
- References 102
pH in Atopic Dermatitis 104
- Abstract 104
- What Is Already Known? 104
- What Does This Text Add? 104
- Molecular Mechanisms Leading to Elevated Skin Surface pH in AD 105
- Skin pH Is Elevated in Atopic Dermatitis 105
- Environmental Factors Contributing to Elevated Skin Surface pH in AD 107
- The Effect of Elevated Skin pH 108
- Skin pH – Diver or Surrogate Marker of AD? 110
- The Implications of Skin pH for Treatment 111
- References 113
Role of Skin pH in Psoriasis 117
- What Does This Text Add? 117
- Abstract 117
- What Is Already Known? 117
- Epidermal Acidification and Effects on Epidermal Homeostasis and Skin Proteases 118
- Aquaporins and Psoriasis 119
- Conclusions 120
- Role of pH in Activation of Antimicrobial Proteins 120
- Topical Treatment for Psoriasis and pH 120
- Acknowledgment 121
- References 122
pH and Acne 124
- What Does This Text Add? 124
- Abstract 124
- What Is Already Known? 124
- Barrier Function 125
- Acne with and without Propionibacterium acnes 125
- Skin Surface pH 125
- Skin Surface pH and Acne 126
- Acne and Skin Surface pH Influences 126
- Acne Treatment with Respect to Skin Surface pH 127
- Conclusion 128
- References 129
pH and Buffer Capacity of Topical Formulations 132
- Abstract 132
- What Is Already Known? 132
- What Does This Text Add? 132
- Materials and Methods 133
- Discussion 137
- Results 137
- Acknowledgements 138
- References 138
The Relation of pH and Skin Cleansing 141
- What Does This Text Add? 141
- Abstract 141
- What Is Already Known? 141
- General Aspects on Skin Cleansing 142
- Skin pH and Corneobiology 144
- The Role of pH in Skin Cleansing 145
- Conclusion 147
- References 149
pH and Drug Delivery 152
- What Is Already Known? 152
- What Does This Text Add? 152
- Abstract 152
- Cutaneous Drug Delivery 153
- The pH Partition Hypothesis 153
- Skin Permeability 153
- Drug Substance Properties 154
- The Drug Formulation 154
- The Skin Hydration 155
- Cutaneous Application of Ionizable Drug Substances 156
- Acid Drug Substances 156
- Basic Drug Substances 157
- Zwitterionic Drug Substances 157
- pH Responsive Drug Delivery Systems 158
- Skin Penetration of Ionized Drug Substances 158
- References 159
- Conclusion 159
Metamorphosis of Vehicles: Mechanisms and Opportunities 161
- What Does This Text Add? 161
- What Is Already Known? 161
- Purpose and Nature of Vehicles 162
- Abstract 162
- Topical Applications: Origin and Assets 162
- Nomenclatures of Vehicles 164
- Metamorphosis of Vehicles 165
- Consequences and Outlook 172
- References 173
Influence of Topical Formulations: Lipid Lamella Organization and Lipid Composition of Stratum Corneum as a Surrogate Marker for 175
- Abstract 175
- What Is Already Known? 175
- What Does This Text Add? 175
- Tissue Sampling and Analysis 176
- Current Experiences with Lipbarvis ® 177
- Conclusion and Outlook 179
- References 181
Skin Care Products: Age-Appropriate Cosmetics 182
- Abstract 182
- What Is Already Known? 182
- What Does This Text Add? 182
- Xerosis Cutis (L85.3) 183
- Diaper Rash (L22) 184
- Cleansing 185
- Skin Care and Appropriate Cosmetic Products 185
- Xerosis Cutis (L85.3) 185
- Leave-on 186
- Diaper Rash (L22) – Skin Care 188
- Conclusion/Recommendations 189
- References 189
Skin Care Products for Healthy and Diseased Skin 192
- Abstract 192
- What Is Already Known? 192
- What Does This Text Add? 192
- What Is Skin Care? 193
- Who Is in Need of Skin Care? 194
- Skin Care Procedures and Skin Care Products 195
- The Essence of Skin Care Products 198
- Challenges and Conclusions 204
- References 206
Author Index 210
Subject Index 211
Cover 215

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