New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering

Description

New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering: Microbial Secondary Metabolites Biochemistry and Applications examines the areas of biotechnology and chemical engineering, covering aspects of plants, bacteria and machines, and using microbes as factories. The book is aimed at undergraduates, post-graduates and researchers studying microbial secondary metabolites, and is an invaluable reference source for biochemical engineers working in biotechnology, manipulating microbes, and developing new uses for bacteria and fungi. The applications of secondary metabolites in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics and medical device development are also extensively covered.

The book integrates the aforementioned frontline branches into an interdisciplinary research work to satisfy those working in biotechnology, chemical engineering, alternative fuel development, diagnostics and pharmaceuticals. Chapters related to important research work on applications of microbial secondary metabolites are written by specialists in the various disciplines from the international community.

Compiles the latest developments in the area of microbial secondary metabolites
Authored by the top international researchers in this area
Includes information related to nearly all areas of a microbial secondary metabolites system

Front Cover 2
New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
List of Contributors 11
1 Wild Mushrooms as Functional Foods: The Significance of Inherent Perilous Metabolites 15
- 1.1 Introduction 15
- 1.2 Mushroom and Its Taxonomy 16
- 1.3 The Toxins and Their Perilous Connections 17
- 1.4 Prospects and Concerns in Terms of Human Health 18
- 1.5 Mushrooms as Dietary Supplements 19
- 1.6 Protein Composition 21
- 1.8 Carbohydrates and Fiber content 22
- 1.7 Lipid Composition 22
- 1.9 Mineral Composition 23

Front Cover 2
New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
List of Contributors 11
1 Wild Mushrooms as Functional Foods: The Significance of Inherent Perilous Metabolites 15
- 1.1 Introduction 15
- 1.2 Mushroom and Its Taxonomy 16
- 1.3 The Toxins and Their Perilous Connections 17
- 1.4 Prospects and Concerns in Terms of Human Health 18
- 1.5 Mushrooms as Dietary Supplements 19
- 1.6 Protein Composition 21
- 1.8 Carbohydrates and Fiber content 22
- 1.7 Lipid Composition 22
- 1.9 Mineral Composition 23
- 1.10 Conclusion 23
- References 24
2 Genetic Manipulation of Secondary Metabolites Producers 27
- 2.1 Introduction 27
- 2.2 Genetic Engineering of the Secondary Metabolic Pathway in Plants 28
  - 2.2.2 Alkaloids 29
    - 2.2.2.1 Crystalline and Nitrogenous Compounds: Biogenesis and Regulatory Factors 29
    - 2.2.2.3 Tropane Alkaloids and Pyrrolidine Alkaloids 30
    - 2.2.2.2 Isoquinoline of Nitrogenous Organic Compounds of Plant 30
  - 2.2.1 Flavonoids and Anthocyanins: Biosynthesis and Regulatory Genes 29
  - 2.2.3 Terpenoids 30
    - 2.2.3.1 The essential oils of plants and simple derivatives 30
    - 2.2.3.2 Carotenoids 31
  - 2.2.4 Carboxybenzene Formatives 31
    - 2.2.4.1 Phytoanticipins (α-Hydroxynitrile-Type Aglycone and of a Sugar Moiety) 32
  - 2.3 Secondary Metabolites in Actinomycetes by Metabolic Engineering 32
    - 2.3.1 Precursor Engineering of Carbohydrate and Fatty Acid Metabolism 32
    - 2.3.2 Technology Regulating Systems 37
    - 2.3.3 Engineering Biosynthetic Structural Genes 38
  - 2.4 The Aspergillus nidulans MAPK Module and Secondary Metabolism 39
    - 2.4.1 Development Modular Controls 39
      - 2.4.1.1 MAP Kinase Module for Secondary Metabolite Synthesis 40
    - 2.5 Conclusions and Future Scope 41
    - Acknowledgment 41
    - References 41
  - 3 Role of Rhizobacterial Secondary Metabolites in Crop Protection Against Agricultural Pests and Diseases 45
    - 3.1 Introduction 45
    - 3.2 Early Uses of Biocontrol Methods in Agriculture 46
    - 3.3 Microbial Secondary Metabolites 47
    - 3.4 Rhizobacterial Secondary Metabolites and Biological Control 48
      - 3.4.1 Antibiotics 48
        
        3.4.1.1 Water-Soluble Antibiotics 49
        
        3.4.1.2 Microbial Volatile Organic Compounds 49
        
        3.4.1.2.1 Antifungal Activity 50
        
        3.4.1.2.2 Antibacterial Activity 51
        
        3.4.1.2.3 Nematicidal Activity 52
        
        3.4.1.2.4 Insecticidal Activity 53
        
        3.4.2 Iron Sequestering 53
        
        3.4.3 Chemical Communication Interference 54
        
        3.4.4 Priming of Induced Systemic Resistance 55
      - 3.5 Regulation of Secondary Metabolites’ Production 56
        
        3.5.1 Regulation by Root Exudates Composition 57
        
        3.5.2 Regulation by Microbial Signals (Quorum-Sensing Signals) 57
      - 3.6 Microbial Metabolites and Biopesticides Development 58
      - 3.7 Concluding Remarks 59
      - References 60
    - 4 Bioengineering of Secondary Metabolites 69
      - 4.1 Introduction 69
      - 4.2 Gene Duplication in Idiophase 71
      - 4.3 Evolution of New Pathways 72
      - 4.4 Bioengineering of Terpenoids in Plants 73
      - 4.5 Metabolic Engineering and Microbial Biogenesis of Plant Isoprenoids 76
      - 4.6 Enzyme Engineering 79
      - 4.7 Conclusion 80
      - Acknowledgment 81
      - References 81
      - Further Reading 82
    - 5 Advances in Microbial Technology for Upscaling Sustainable Biofuel Production 83
      - 5.1 Introduction 83
      - 5.2 Biomass Feedstocks for Biofuels Production 84
      - 5.3 Downside of First- and Second-Generation Biofuels 85
      - 5.4 Metabolic Engineering and Biofuel Production 86
      - 5.5 Metabolic Pathways for Alcohol-Derived Fuels 87
      - 5.6 Metabolic Pathways for Isoprenoid-Derived Fuels 87
      - 5.8 Synthetic Biology and Its Role in Design of Microbial Cell Factories 88
      - 5.7 Metabolic Pathways for Fatty Acid-Derived Fuels 88
      - 5.9 Engineering Microbes for Tolerance to Next-Generation Biofuels 89
      - 5.10 Conclusion 89
      - References 90
    - 6 Bioprospecting Actinobacteria for Bioactive Secondary Metabolites From Untapped Ecoregions of the Northwestern Himalayas 91
      - 6.1 Introduction to Secondary Metabolites 91
      - 6.2 Introduction to Actinobacteria 92
      - 6.4 Choice of Actinobacteria as Source of Bioactive Secondary Metabolites 93
      - 6.3 Distribution of Actinobacteria 93
      - 6.5 Actinobacteria From Unusual Environments 94
      - 6.6 Northwestern Himalayas as Sources of Bioactive Actinobacteria 95
      - 6.7 Conclusion 97
      - References 98
      - Acknowledgment 98
    - 7 Microbial Metabolites: Peptides of Diverse Structure and Function 101
      - 7.1 Introduction 101
      - 7.2 Antimicrobial Peptides 102
      - 7.3 Classification of Microbial AMPs 103
        
        7.3.1 Class I: Posttranslationally Modified Bacteriocins 105
        
        7.3.1.3 Class Ic: The Sactibiotics 105
        
        7.3.1.1 Class Ia: The Lantibiotics 105
        
        7.3.1.2 Class Ib: The Labyrinthopeptins 105
        
        7.3.2 Class II: Unmodified Bacteriocins 106
        
        7.3.2.2 Class IIb: The Two-Peptide Bacteriocins 106
        
        7.3.2.3 Class IIc: The Circular Bacteriocins 106
        
        7.3.2.1 Class IIa: The Pediocin-Like Bacteriocins 106
        
        7.3.2.4 Class IId: The Nonpediocin, Unmodified, Linear Bacteriocins 107
        
        7.4 Mechanism of Action 107
        
        7.5 Potential Applications of AMPs 109
        
        7.6 Conclusion 110
        
        References 110
        
        Further Reading 115
      - 8 Agrobacterium rhizogenes Mediated Hairy Root Cultures: A Promising Approach for Production of Useful Metabolites 117
        
        8.1 Introduction 117
        
        8.2 Agrobacterium and Ri T-DNA Genes 118
        
        8.3 Role of rol Genes 119
        
        8.4 Secondary Metabolite Production 120
        
        8.5 Large-Scale Production of Hairy Roots 124
        
        8.6 Liquid-Phase Bioreactors 125
        
        8.6.2 Airlift Bioreactors 126
        
        8.6.5 Turbine Blade Reactor 126
        
        8.6.3 Bubble Column Reactor 126
        
        8.6.6 Rotating Drum Bioreactor 126
        
        8.6.1 Stirred Tank Reactor 126
        
        8.6.4 Convective Flow Reactor 126
        
        8.7 Gas Phase Bioreactors 127
        
        8.8 Hybrid Bioreactors 127
        
        8.9 Parameters That Affect Productivity 127
        
        8.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 128
        
        References 128
      - 9 Unleashing Extremophilic Metabolites and Its Industrial Perspectives 133
        
        9.1 Introduction 133
        
        9.2 Marine Microbial Metabolites Derived From Benthic Environment 134
        
        9.3 Marine Sponge—Microbial Symbionts 135
        
        9.4 Stromatolites: Potential Novel Source for Future Biotechnology 135
        
        9.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Producing Free-Living Marine Bacteria 137
        
        9.5.1 Chemical Composition and Material Properties of Polyhydroxyalkanoates 137
        
        9.6 Stress Acclimatization of PHA-Producing Bacteria 138
        
        9.7 Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoate by Halophilic Bacteria 138
        
        9.8 Role of PHA Synthase in Halophiles 140
        
        References 141
        
        9.9 Concluding Remarks 141
        
        Further Reading 144
      - 10 Hybrid Bioactive Products and Combinatorion Biosynthesis 145
        
        10.1 Introduction 145
        
        10.2 Need of Combinatorial Biosynthesis 146
        
        10.3 Precursor-Directed Combinatorial Biosynthesis 146
        
        10.4 Enzyme-Level Combinatorial Biosynthesis 148
        
        10.4.2 Directed Evolution 149
        
        10.4.1 Site-Specific Mutagenesis 149
        
        10.5 Pathway-Level Combinatorial Biosynthesis 150
        
        Acknowledgment 151
        
        References 151
        
        10.6 Conclusion 151
      - 11 Rubromycins: A Class of Telomerase Inhibitor Antibiotics Produced by Streptomyces spp. 155
        
        11.1 Introduction 155
        
        11.2 Telomeres, Telomerase, and Cancer 156
        
        11.3 Rubromycins: A Class of Molecules Telomerase Activity Inhibition 157
        
        11.4 Mode of Action of Rubromycins Human Telomerase Inhibition 158
        
        11.5 Streptomyces spp.: The Biofactories for Human Telomerase Inhibitors Production 158
        
        11.6 Biosynthesis of Rubromycins 159
        
        11.7 Bioprocess of Rubromycins Production 160
        
        11.7.1 Future Perspectives 161
        
        References 161
      - 12 Regulation by Metal Ions 165
        
        12.1 Introduction 165
        
        12.2 Regulatory Mechanisms 167
        
        12.3 Role of Specific Molecules in Controlling Biosynthetic Pathways 168
        
        12.3.1 Metal Ions in the Synthesis of Antimicrobial Agents 168
        
        12.4 Metal Ions in the Synthesis of Organic Acids 170
        
        12.5 Metal Ions in the Synthesis of Siderophores 171
        
        12.6 Metal Ions in the Synthesis of Microbial Pigments 172
        
        12.7 Metal Ions in the Synthesis of Vascular Permeability Factor 172
        
        12.8 Metal Ions in the Synthesis of Hydrogen Cyanide 173
        
        12.9 Conclusion 173
        
        References 173
      - 13 Citric Acid Cycle Regulation: Back Bone for Secondary Metabolite Production 179
        
        13.1 History 180
        
        13.2 Citric Acid Cycle: Process and Regulation 182
        
        13.2.1 Synthesis of Citrate 182
        
        13.2.3 Conversion of Isocitrate Into α-Ketoglutarate 183
        
        13.2.2 Isomerization of Citrate Into Isocitrate 183
        
        13.2.4 Conversion of α-Ketoglutarate Into Succinyl CoA 184
        
        13.2.6 Conversion of Succinate Into Fumarate 185
        
        13.2.5 Conversion of Succinyl CoA Into Succinate 185
        
        13.2.9 Citric Acid Cycle Enzymes as Multienzyme Complex 186
        
        13.2.7 Conversion of Fumarate Into Malate 186
        
        13.2.8 Conversion of Malate Into Oxaloacetate 186
        
        13.3 Citric Acid Cycle as Biosynthetic Precursors 186
        
        13.3.1 Anaplerosis and Cataplerosis for Citric Acid Cycle Regulation 187
        
        13.3.2 Flux Modes of Citric Acid Cycle in Plants 188
        
        13.3.3 Flux Modes of Citric Acid Cycle in Bacteria 190
        
        13.4 Example of Synthesis of Metabolites Through Intermediates of Citric Acid Cycle 190
        
        13.4.1 Enhancement in the Production of Cellulose 190
        
        13.4.3 Synthesis of Amino Acid 191
        
        13.4.2 Enhancement of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis and Lipstatin Production 191
        
        13.4.5 Production Itaconic Acid 192
        
        13.4.4 Production of Citric Acid 192
        
        13.4.6 Production of Pyrimidines and Purines 193
        
        13.4.7 Production of 1,4 Butanediol 193
        
        13.5 Conclusion 193
        
        References 194
      - 14 Resistance in Pathogenic Microorganisms 197
        
        14.1 Resistance in Bacteria 197
        
        14.1.1 Biochemistry of Resistance in Bacteria 198
        
        14.1.1.1 Antibiotic Inactivation 199
        
        14.1.1.4 Interference in Protein Synthesis 199
        
        14.1.1.2 Target Modification 199
        
        14.1.1.5 DNA Synthesis Interference 199
        
        14.1.1.3 Alteration in Peptidoglycan Structure 199
        
        14.1.1.6 Efflux Pumps and Permeability of Outer Membrane 199
        
        14.2 Resistance in Fungi 200
        
        14.4 Resistance in Viruses 202
        
        14.3 Antifungal Resistance From Environmental Origin 202
        
        References 204
        
        15 Hybrid Approach for Transformation for Betulin (an Anti-HIV Molecule) 207
        
        15.1 Background of Betulin 207
        
        15.2 Main Sources of Triterpenes 209
        
        15.3 Applications 210
        
        15.4 Value Addition Using the Hybrid Approach 211
        
        15.5 Key Strategies for Adding Value 212
        
        15.6 Hybrid Approach to Develop Betulin Derivatives 213
        
        15.7 Issues in Chemical Synthesis 214
        
        15.8 Conclusion 214
        
        Acknowledgments 215
        
        References 215
        
        Further Reading 217
        
        16 Producers of Bioactive Compounds 219
        
        16.1 Introduction 219
        
        16.2 Bioactive Compounds 221
        
        16.3 Major Classes of Bioactive Compounds 221
        
        16.5 Diverse Biological Activities of Bioactive Compounds 222
        
        16.6 Sources of Bioactive Compounds 222
        
        16.4 Criteria for the Selection of an Ideal Bioactive Compound 222
        
        16.8 Invertebrates as the Sources of Bioactive Compounds 223
        
        16.7 Plants as the Sources of Bioactive Compounds 223
        
        16.9 Microbial Producers of Bioactive Compounds 224
        
        16.10 Bacteria as Producers of Bioactive Compounds 225
        
        16.11 Fungi as Producers of Bioactive Compounds 228
        
        16.12 Algae as Producers of Bioactive Compounds 230
        
        16.13 Conclusion 232
        
        References 232
        
        17 Bioremediation of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants Using Microalgae 237
        
        17.1 Introduction 237
        
        17.2 Inorganic Pollutants 238
        
        17.2.1 Heavy Metals 238
        
        17.2.2 Radioactive Compounds 240
        
        17.3 Organic Pollutants 241
        
        17.3.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 241
        
        17.3.2 Fertilizers and Pesticides 242
        
        17.3.4 Tributyltin 243
        
        17.3.3 Dimethyl Phthalate 243
        
        17.3.5 Explosives 244
        
        17.4 Role of Biosurfactants in the Bioremediation 244
        
        17.5 Emerging Pollutants 245
        
        17.5.2 Pharmaceutical Active Compounds 245
        
        17.5.1 Polyfluorinated Compounds 245
        
        17.6 Conclusion 245
        
        References 246
        
        Further Reading 249
        
        18 Secondary Metabolites From Endophytic Fungi and Their Biological Activities 251
        
        18.1 Introduction 251
        
        18.2 Endophytic Fungal Diversity 252
        
        18.3 Secondary Metabolites 252
        
        18.3.1 Antibacterials/Antimycobacterials From Endophytic Fungi 252
        
        18.3.2 Antifungals From Endophytic Fungi 256
        
        18.3.3 Anticancer, Immunosuppressive, and Antiinflammatory Activities of Endophytic Fungi 257
        
        18.3.4 Antioxidants From Endophytic Fungi 263
        
        18.3.5 Industrial Enzymes From Endophytic Fungi 265
        
        18.4 Conclusions 266
        
        References 266
        
        19 Regulation and Role of Metal Ions in Secondary Metabolite Production by Microorganisms 273
        
        19.1 Introduction 273
        
        19.2 Manganese 277
        
        19.3 Copper 278
        
        19.4 Nickel 279
        
        19.5 Calcium 279
        
        19.6 Cadmium 280
        
        19.7 Zinc 280
        
        19.8 Cobalt 282
        
        19.9 Iron 283
        
        19.10 Rare-Earth Elements 283
        
        19.12 Conclusion and Future Prospect 284
        
        19.11 Other Metals 284
        
        References 285
        
        Further Reading 291
        
        20 Metabolic Engineering to Synthetic Biology of Secondary Metabolites Production 293
        
        20.1 Introduction 293
        
        20.2 Secondary Metabolites-Producing Microbes 294
        
        20.3 Discovery of Novel Microbes Producing Secondary Metabolites 298
        
        20.4 The Functional Genomics of Secondary Metabolites-Producing Microbes 300
        
        20.5 Biodiversity of Secondary Metabolites-Producing Microbes 302
        
        20.5.1 Plant-Associated Microbiomes 302
        
        20.5.2 Microbiomes From Extreme Habitats 305
        
        20.5.2.1 Psychrophilic Microbes 305
        
        20.5.2.2 Thermophilic Microbes 307
        
        20.5.2.3 Halophilic Microbes 308
        
        20.6 Distributions of Secondary Metabolites-Producing Microbes 309
        
        20.6.1 Archaea 309
        
        20.6.2 Bacteria 317
        
        20.6.3 Fungi 319
        
        20.7 Synthetic Biology for Secondary Metabolites Production 319
        
        20.7.1 Anthraquinones 319
        
        20.7.2 Quinones 320
        
        20.7.3 Phenolic Compounds 321

Microbial Secondary Metabolites Biochemistry and Applications

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