Nickel-Titanium Smart Hybrid Materials

Description

Nickel-Titanium Smart Hybrid Materials: From Micro- to Nano-structured Alloys for Emerging Applications describes advanced properties that can be adapted in NiTi-alloys. Nickel-Titanium (NiTi) systems are receiving wide demand in growing industries due to their smart, high-temperature or biocompatible behavior. These influenced behaviors are carefully described in the micro-scale and nanoscale range, with NiTi smart materials described on the basis of their shape memory effect (SME) and super-elastic (SE) properties for sensor and actuator application. This book discusses novel properties of nickel-titanium systems, helping materials scientists and engineers produce smart technologies and systems for the aeronautical, automobile, mechanical, healthcare and electronics industries.

Describes the use of nanotechnology and microtechnology in nickel-titanium-based systems
Outlines the major properties of Nickel-Titanium Nanoalloys
Assesses the major challenges of manufacturing nickel-titanium nanoalloys at an industrial scale

Front Cover 2
Nickel–Titanium Smart Hybrid Materials 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
List of contributors 19
Foreword 23
- References 24
I. Fundamentals 25
- 1 NiTi-based smart micro- and nanoalloys: an introduction 27
  - References 29
- 2 Methods for fabrication of NiTi micro- and nanoalloys 33
  - 2.2 Magnetron sputtering 33
    - 2.2.1 Mechanism 34
    - 2.2.2 Alloy target deposition 35
  - 2.1 Introduction 33

Front Cover 2
Nickel–Titanium Smart Hybrid Materials 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
List of contributors 19
Foreword 23
- References 24
I. Fundamentals 25
- 1 NiTi-based smart micro- and nanoalloys: an introduction 27
  - References 29
- 2 Methods for fabrication of NiTi micro- and nanoalloys 33
  - 2.2 Magnetron sputtering 33
    - 2.2.1 Mechanism 34
    - 2.2.2 Alloy target deposition 35
    - 2.2.3 Multilayer deposition 36
    - 2.2.4 Co-sputtering 38
    - 2.2.5 Influence of process parameters 40
  - 2.1 Introduction 33
  - 2.3 Pulsed laser deposition 41
  - 2.4 Electrodeposition 41
  - 2.5 Fabrication of NiTi micro- and nanodevices 42
    - 2.5.1 Photolithography 42
    - 2.5.2 Bulk micromachining 43
    - 2.5.3 Surface micromachining process 44
    - 2.5.4 Electrochemical micromachining 44
    - 2.5.5 Laser micromachining 45
  - 2.6 Summary 46
  - References 46
- 3 Constitutive modeling of NiTi-based shape memory alloys 53
  - 3.1 Introduction 53
    - 3.1.1 Existing models 54
      - 3.1.1.1 Microscopic models 54
        
        3.1.1.1.1 Lattice structure 54
        
        3.1.1.1.2 Habit plane 57
        
        3.1.1.1.3 State variables 58
        
        3.1.1.1.5 Hardening energy 59
        
        3.1.1.1.6 Stacking fault energy 59
        
        3.1.1.1.4 Interatomic potential energy 59
      - 3.1.1.3 Analytical modeling 61
        
        3.1.1.3.1 Microscopic martensitic model 61
        
        3.1.1.3.1.1 Virial stress equation 61
        
        3.1.1.3.1.2 Interatomic potential 62
        
        3.1.1.3.1.3 Twinning equation 63
        
        3.1.1.3.1.4 Compatibility equations 64
        
        3.1.1.3.1.5 Detwinning equation 66
        
        3.1.1.3.1.6 Stress-free martensite phase 69
        
        3.1.1.3.1.7 Latent heat for the reference process “R” 72
        
        3.1.1.3.2 Micro–macroscopic modeling 74
      - 3.1.1.2 Macroscopic models 61
      - 3.1.2 Shape function for SME 76
    - References 77
  - 4 Cryo-treatment of NiTi alloys 81
    - 4.1 Introduction 81
    - 4.2 Why cryogenic treatment is required for NiTi 82
    - 4.3 Subcooling treatment and cryogenic treatments in NiTi 82
    - 4.4 Microstructure and properties 83
    - 4.5 Influencing parameters in NiTi cryogenic processing 88
    - 4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of cryogenic processing 88
    - 4.7 Summary and perspective 89
    - References 90
  - 5 Heat treatment of NiTi alloys 93
    - 5.1 Requirements of heat treatment 93
    - 5.2 Binary phase and TTT diagram of Ni-Ti 94
    - 5.3 How is heat treatment performed? 96
      - 5.3.1 Short and long-time heat treatments 96
      - 5.3.2 Cyclic heat treatment 97
    - 5.4 Microstructure and phase transformation of NiTi by heat-treatment 97
      - 5.4.1 Effect of heat treatment on undesired NiTi2 phase 102
      - 5.4.2 Effect of solution treatment to eliminate Ni3Ti Precipitates 105
    - 5.5 Effect of heat treatment on the mechanical properties of NiTi alloys 106
      - 5.5.1 Transformation stresses and superelastic behavior 106
      - 5.5.2 Effect of heat treatment on hardness and elastic modulus 108
      - 5.5.3 Effect of heat treatment on Fatigue life 110
    - 5.6 Effect of heat treatment on corrosion resistance of NiTi alloys 111
    - 5.7 Heat treatment parameters 114
      - 5.7.1 Effect of time and temperature 114
      - 5.7.2 Effect of atmosphere in heat-treatment 121
    - References 122
  - II. Micro-/nanostructures and properties 127
    - 6 NiTi superalloys 129
      - 6.1 Introduction 129
      - 6.3 Alloying elements and their importance 130
      - 6.2 History 130
      - 6.4 Phases of NiTi superalloys 131
      - 6.5 Mechanisms of strengthening 134
        
        6.5.1 Solid solution strengthening 135
        
        6.5.2 Precipitation strengthening 135
        
        6.5.3 Oxide dispersion strengthening 136
        
        6.5.4 Carbide hardening 136
      - 6.6 Manufacturing processes for NiTi superalloys 136
        
        6.6.1 Vacuum induction melting 137
        
        6.6.2 Vacuum arc remelting 138
        
        6.6.3 Investment casting 139
        
        6.6.4 Directional solidification 139
        
        6.6.5 Conventional press and sinter 140
        
        6.6.6 Hot isostatic pressing 141
        
        6.6.7 Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis 141
        
        6.6.8 Spark plasma sintering 141
        
        6.6.9 Microwave sintering 142
        
        6.6.10 Metal injection molding 142
        
        6.6.11 Additive manufacturing 143
        
        6.6.12 Rheocasting 143
      - 6.8 Summary and future scopes 144
      - 6.7 Applications 144
      - References 145
    - 7 NiTi-based ternary shape-memory alloys 147
      - 7.1 Introduction 147
      - 7.2 NiTi phase diagram 147
      - 7.4 NiTi production methods 150
      - 7.3 Factors affecting the phase transformation temperatures 150
      - 7.5 Effect of ternary additions 152
        
        7.5.1 High-temperature shape-memory alloys 152
        
        7.5.2 Low-temperature shape-memory alloys 155
        
        7.5.4 Shape-memory alloys with antibacterial and biocompatible properties 156
        
        7.5.3 Shape-memory alloys with corrosion and oxidation resistance 156
        
        7.5.5 Rare earth additions 157
      - References 158
      - 7.6 Conclusions and future scope 158
    - 8 NiTi superhydrophobic materials 163
      - 8.2 Nomenclature 163
      - 8.1 Superhydrophobicity: science from nature 163
      - 8.3 Basic concepts 165
      - 8.4 Processes for the preparation of a superhydrophobic surface 166
        
        8.4.3 Deposition 167
        
        8.4.1 Lithography 167
        
        8.4.2 Etching 167
        
        8.4.4 Colloidal assemblies 168
      - 8.5 NiTi smart material 168
      - 8.6 NiTi superhydrophobic surfaces 169
      - 8.7 Conclusions 170
      - References 171
    - 9 NiTi plasma spray coating 175
      - 9.1 Introduction 175
      - 9.2 Classification of NiTi plasma spraying 177
        
        9.2.1 NiTi coatings generated via atmospheric plasma spraying 177
        
        9.2.2 NiTi coatings generated via vacuum plasma spraying 178
      - 9.3 Mechanism of NiTi coating 178
      - 9.4 Factors affecting NiTi spraying 181
        
        9.4.1 Plasma arc current 182
        
        9.4.2 Plasma gun powder 182
        
        9.4.3 Primary gas in the plasma chamber 182
        
        9.4.4 Powder flow rate 183
        
        9.4.5 Spraying angle dependency 183
        
        9.4.6 Substrate temperature 183
        
        9.4.7 Nozzle length 184
        
        9.4.8 Stand-off distance 184
      - 9.5 Thermodynamics associated with NiTi coating 184
        
        9.5.1 Enthalpy calculations 185
        
        9.5.2 Entropy calculations 186
        
        9.5.3 Gibbs free energy evaluation 187
      - 9.6 Reaction with O2 187
      - 9.7 Fabrication procedure 189
      - 9.8 Microstructure and properties 190
      - 9.10 Applications 192
      - 9.9 Advantages and disadvantages 192
      - 9.11 Summary and future perspectives 193
      - References 193
    - 10 Biocompatibility of NiTi 197
      - 10.1 Introduction 197
      - 10.2 Corrosion and NiTi implants 200
      - 10.3 Biocompatibility studies 201
        
        10.3.1 Biocompatibility of nickel 201
        
        10.3.2 Biocompatibility of titanium 202
        
        10.3.3 Biocompatibility of NiTi alloy 202
        
        10.3.3.1 In vitro evaluation of biocompatibility of NiTi alloy 202
        
        10.3.3.2 Use of animal models to check the biocompatibility of NiTi in animals 203
        
        10.3.3.3 In vivo trials of NiTi implants in human 206
        
        10.4 Application of NiTi biomaterials 207
        
        10.5 Issues and challenges of NiTi implants 209
        
        10.6 Summary and future scope 209
        
        References 210
      - 11 NiTi-based ternary alloys 215
        
        11.1 Introduction 215
        
        11.2 Effect of additive elements 216
        
        11.2.1 Addition of Al in NiTi 216
        
        11.2.2 Addition of Co in NiTi 217
        
        11.2.3 Addition of Cu in NiTi 218
        
        11.2.4 Addition of Hf in NiTi 218
        
        11.2.5 Addition of Zr in NiTi 219
        
        11.2.6 Addition of Fe in NiTi 219
        
        11.2.7 Addition of Nb in NiTi 220
        
        11.2.8 Addition of Pt/Pd in NiTi 221
        
        11.2.9 Addition of Sn in NiTi 222
        
        11.2.10 Addition of Ag in NiTi 222
        
        11.2.11 Addition of V in NiTi 223
        
        11.3 Major factors affecting the properties 223
        
        11.4 Thermodynamics associated with additions 225
        
        11.4.1 NiTiAl alloy 225
        
        11.4.3 NiTiCu alloy 226
        
        11.4.4 NiTiFe alloy 226
        
        11.4.2 NiTiCo alloy 226
        
        11.5 Fabrication procedure 227
        
        11.6 Change to properties 228
        
        11.7 Advantages and disadvantages 229
        
        11.8 Summary and future perspectives 233
        
        References 233
      - 12 NiTi-based coupling devices 239
        
        12.1 Introduction 239
        
        12.2 Advantages of an NiTi coupler over a conventional coupler 240
        
        12.3 Design considerations 242
        
        12.4 Fabrication of a nitinol coupler 243
        
        12.4.1 Pipe-joining application 244
        
        12.4.1.1 External connection 244
        
        12.4.1.2 Internal connection 246
        
        12.4.1.3 Bonded connection with additional foil member 247
        
        12.4.1.4 Underwater pipe application 248
        
        12.4.2 Shaft-joining application 250
        
        12.5 NiTi-based alloy couplers 250
        
        12.5.1 NiTiCu and NiTiNb 251
        
        12.5.3 NiTiZr 252
        
        12.5.2 NiTiCr 252
        
        12.5.6 NiTiHf 253
        
        12.5.4 NiTiFe 253
        
        12.5.5 NiTiAl 253
        
        12.5.9 NiTiCo and NiTiMo 254
        
        12.5.7 NiTiAg and NiTiV 254
        
        12.5.8 NiTiPd and NiTiSi 254
        
        12.6 Heat treatment and postprocessing 255
        
        12.6.1 Combined effects of cold working and aging on shape memory and superelastic behaviors 256
        
        12.7 Application of an NiTi-based coupler 256
        
        12.7.1 Aerospace industry 256
        
        12.7.2 Hose clamp 258
        
        12.7.3 Ship building 259
        
        12.7.4 Offshore applications 261
        
        12.7.5 Electrical connectors 262
        
        12.7.6 Nuclear plant 262
        
        12.7.7 Miscellaneous 263
        
        12.8 Advantages and disadvantages of NiTi couplers 263
        
        References 264
        
        12.9 Conclusion 264
      - III. Emerging applications 269
        
        13 Thermal spraying of NiTi alloy 271
        
        13.1 Introduction to thermal spraying 271
        
        13.2 NiTi shape memory alloy 273
        
        13.3 Atmospheric plasma spraying of NiTi 277
        
        13.3.1 Properties of coatings and the effects of various APS parameters 280
        
        13.4 Vacuum plasma spraying of NiTi 284
        
        13.4.1 Properties of coatings and the effects of various VPS parameters 284
        
        13.5 Formation of NiTi intermetallics during thermal spraying 285
        
        13.6 Defects during NiTi thermal spraying 287
        
        13.7 Summary 288
        
        References 289
        
        14 Nickel–titanium smart hybrid materials for automotive industry 295
        
        14.1 Introduction 295
        
        14.1.1 Classification of hybrid materials 296
        
        14.1.2 Distinction between nanocomposites and hybrid materials 297
        
        14.2 What are NiTi smart hybrid materials 297
        
        14.2.2 Methods of preparation of NiTi smart hybrid alloys 299
        
        14.2.2.2 Heat treating 299
        
        14.2.2.3 Powder metallurgy 299
        
        14.2.2.1 Melting 299
        
        14.2.2.5 Thin-film fabrication 300
        
        14.2.2.4 Thermal spray 300
        
        14.2.1 Synthesis 299
        
        14.3 Applications 300
        
        14.3.1 Automotive applications 300
        
        14.3.1.1 Leaf springs 301
        
        14.3.1.3 Side mirror 302
        
        14.3.1.2 Bumper system 302
        
        14.3.1.6 Engine 303
        
        14.3.1.4 Windshield wiper 303
        
        14.3.1.5 Door handle and child lock assembly 303
        
        14.3.1.7 Actuators 304
        
        14.3.1.7.2 SMA actuators 306
        
        14.3.1.7.1 Battery module actuators 306
        
        14.3.1.7.3 Thermal and electrical actuators 307
        
        14.3.1.8 Thermal valves 308
        
        14.3.1.9 Sensors 308
        
        14.3.1.9.1 Tire pressure sensor 308
        
        14.3.1.9.2 Knock sensor 310
        
        14.3.1.10 Robotics 310
        
        14.3.1.11 Smart wings 310
        
        14.3.1.12 Magnetostrictive applications 311
        
        14.3.1.13 Piezoelectric applications 311
        
        14.3.1.13.1 Power generation in automobiles 312
        
        14.3.1.13.2 Fuel level indicator 312
        
        14.3.1.13.3 Piezoelectric car tire 313
        
        14.3.1.14 Smart polymer applications 313
        
        14.3.2 Other applications 315
        
        References 316
        
        14.4 Conclusions 316
        
        15 Biomedical applications of NiTi alloys 321
        
        15.1 Introduction 321
        
        15.2 Dentistry applications 322
        
        15.2.1 Orthodontic 322
        
        15.2.2 Endodontic fields 324
        
        15.2.3 Dental prostheses and implants 325
        
        15.2.3.2 Periodontal root-type implants 326
        
        15.2.3.1 Blade-type implants 326
        
        15.2.4 Recent progress in dental NiTi alloys 326
        
        15.3 Orthopedic applications 327
        
        15.3.1 Assistive equipment 328
        
        15.3.1.1 Prosthesis 328
        
        15.3.1.2 Orthosis 329
        
        15.3.1.2.1 Elbow orthoses 330
        
        15.3.1.2.2 Knee, ankle, and toe orthoses 332
        
        15.3.1.2.2.1 Ankle orthoses 333
        
        15.3.1.2.2.2 Dynamic and static ankle-foot orthoses 334
        
        15.3.1.2.3 NiTi plates and fixators for fractured bone 335
        
        15.3.1.2.4 NiTi orthopedic staples 335
        
        15.3.1.2.5 NiTi for spinal spacer, rod, and loop 335
        
        15.3.1.2.5.1 Spinal vertebral spacer 336
        
        15.3.1.2.5.2 Spinal rods 336
        
        15.3.2 Rehabilitation devices 337
        
        15.3.2.1 Toe-up devices 337

From Micro- to Nano-structured Alloys for Emerging Applications

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