Pesticides in the Natural Environment

Description

Pesticides in the Natural Environment: Sources, Health Risks, and Remediation presents the direct and indirect impacts of the use of pesticides on the environment, human health, and agriculture. The book explores sustainable alternatives to pesticide use, along with policies for regulations and remediation techniques. Bridging the gap between regulations and the tangible environmental threat, the book proposes practical solutions while also providing important context on the hazards of pesticides. It highlights the influence on climate change, offering a holistic perspective for researchers in environmental science, policymakers, and land managers. The book introduces pesticides and their applications, then goes on to cover their impact on various ecosystems in the natural environment. Health risks are covered, followed by various remediation techniques, such as biological processes, phytoremediation, and chemical treatments.

Describes the impact of pesticides on the environment, human health and the food chain as well as regulations and policies to address the impact
Presents remediation strategies and techniques for pesticides in a variety of ecosystems, along with potential alternatives
Includes case studies to illustrate the proper management of pesticides and intervention

Front Cover 2
Pesticides in the Natural Environment: Sources, Health Risks, and Remediation 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 19
Chapter 1: Classification of pesticides and loss of crops due to creepy crawlers 23
- 1. Introduction 23
- 2. Crop losses due to pests 24
- 3. Pesticide classification 26
- 5. Organochlorine pesticides (OCP) 29
- 4. Classification based on chemical structure 29
- 6. Organophosphate pesticides (OPP) 31
- 7. Carbamate pesticides 32
- 8. Pyrethroid pesticides 34

Front Cover 2
Pesticides in the Natural Environment: Sources, Health Risks, and Remediation 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 19
Chapter 1: Classification of pesticides and loss of crops due to creepy crawlers 23
- 1. Introduction 23
- 2. Crop losses due to pests 24
- 3. Pesticide classification 26
- 5. Organochlorine pesticides (OCP) 29
- 4. Classification based on chemical structure 29
- 6. Organophosphate pesticides (OPP) 31
- 7. Carbamate pesticides 32
- 8. Pyrethroid pesticides 34
- 9. Classification based on mode of entry 36
  - 9.1. Systematic pesticides 36
  - 9.2. Contact pesticides 36
  - 9.3. Fumigants 36
  - 9.4. Stomach poisons and toxicants 37
  - 9.5. Repellents 37
- 10. Classification based on target pest 37
- 11. Based on pesticide toxicity 37
- 12. Pesticide contamination, implications, and environmental impacts 39
- 13. Summary 40
- References 41
Chapter 2: Ecological impacts of pesticides on soil and water ecosystems and its natural degradation process 45
- 1. Introduction 45
- 2. Persistence and circulation of pesticides in the ecosystem 47
- 3. Bioaccumulation of chemical pesticides in the food cycle 48
- 4. Pesticides and their mode of action 48
  - 4.1. Action on nerve and muscle 48
    - 4.1.1. Carbamate and organophosphate 48
    - 4.1.2. Neonicotinoid 48
    - 4.1.4. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids 49
    - 4.1.3. Organochlorine, avermectins, and bifenazate 49
  - 4.3. Target on the energy source 49
  - 4.4. Bioprocessing of pesticides in animals 49
  - 4.2. Target on growth inhibition 49
  - 4.5. Pesticide impacts on soil ecosystem 50
  - 4.6. Pesticide impacts on water ecosystem 51
  - 4.7. Impacts of pesticides on human health 54
    - 4.7.2. Chronic health effects 54
    - 4.7.1. Acute health impacts on human 54
    - 4.7.3. Pesticide impacts on youngsters 55
  - 4.8. Familiar pesticides and their health effects 55
  - 4.9. Natural degradation process 57
  - 4.10. Detoxification of pesticides by bacteria 57
  - 4.11. Enzymes involved in biodegradation of pesticides 63
    - 4.11.1. Hydrolases 63
    - 4.11.3. Phosphotriesterases 64
    - 4.11.2. Esterases 64
    - 4.11.4. Oxidoreductases 65
  - 4.12. Phases of metabolism involved in degradation and detoxification of toxic metabolite 65
- 5. Conclusion 67
- Acknowledgments 67
- References 68
Chapter 3: Fate and assessment of pesticide in aquatic ecosystem 73
- 1. Introduction 73
- 2. Sources, forms, and occurrence of pesticides in the ecosystem 75
- 3. Environmental fate of pesticides 77
- 4. Factors that influence the assessment of aquatic pesticide pollution 80
- 5. Future recommendations 82
- 6. Conclusion 82
- References 83
Chapter 4: Fate and adverse effects of pesticides in the environment 87
- 1. Introduction 87
- 2. Mechanisms involved in the determination of the initial fate of a pesticide in the environment 88
- 3. Transport of pesticides in the environment 89
  - 3.1. Transport in the atmosphere 89
    - 3.1.1. Drift of the wind 89
    - 3.1.3. Erosion 90
    - 3.1.2. Volatilization 90
  - 3.2. Soil transport 90
    - 3.2.2. Degradation 91
      - Hydrolysis 92
      - Redox reactions 92
      - Chemical degradation 92
      - Photodegradation 93
    - 3.2.1. Retention 91
    - 3.3. Transport of pesticides to water reservoirs 93
      - 3.3.1. Lixiviation 93
      - 3.3.2. Runoff 94
    - 4. Use of pesticides worldwide 94
      - 4.1. Countries that have banned the application of any of the pesticides analyzed 95
    - 5. Impact of pesticide on the soil microbiology 96
      - 5.1. Pesticides in the soil: Application rates and legislation 96
      - 5.2. The microbiological diversity of the soil and pesticides 97
      - 5.3. Consequences of pesticide contamination in the soil 98
      - 5.4. Interaction pesticides-Microorganisms: Bioremediation and biodegradation 99
      - 5.5. Adverse effects of pesticides on microorganisms present in the soil 101
      - 5.6. Other effects 102
    - 6. Pesticides and the response of plants 105
      - 6.1. Plants and pests: Pests as pesticides? 106
        
        6.1.1. Semiochemicals 107
        
        6.1.2. Kairomones 107
        
        6.1.3. Pheromones 108
      - 6.2. Allelopathy 109
      - 6.3. Herbivore-induced plant volatiles 109
    - 7. Pesticides toxicity on nontarget terrestrial organisms 111
      - 7.2. Bees 111
      - 7.1. Pollinators 111
      - 7.3. Wasps 112
      - 7.4. Parasitoids 112
      - 7.5. Ants 113
      - 7.6. Butterflies 113
      - 7.7. Beetles 114
      - 7.8. Arthropod predators 115
      - 7.9. Silkworms 115
      - 7.10. Earthworms 116
      - 7.11. Moths 116
      - 7.13. Mammals in general 117
      - 7.12. Birds 117
    - 8. Pesticides impact on aquatic ecosystems 118
      - 8.2. Butachlor 118
      - 8.1. Atrazine 118
      - 8.4. Carbofuran 121
      - 8.3. Carbaryl 121
      - 8.5. Cypermethrin 122
      - 8.6. Chlorpyrifos 122
      - 8.7. Dimethoate 123
      - 8.8. Fipronil 123
      - 8.10. Malathion 124
      - 8.9. Glyphosate 124
    - 9. Perspectives and future research 127
    - References 128
  - Chapter 5: Towards understanding the impact of pesticides on freshwater ecosystem 143
    - 1. Introduction 143
    - 2. Routes of aquatic pesticide pollution 145
    - 3. Impact of pesticide pollution on aquatic ecosystem 145
    - 4. Impact of pesticides on water quality 150
    - 5. Impact of pesticides on flora of aquatic ecosystem 151
    - 6. Impact of pesticides on fauna of aquatic ecosystem 152
    - 7. Specific impacts of different categories of pesticides on aquatic fauna 154
    - 8. Response to the risks of use of pesticides 155
    - 9. Conclusion 156
    - References 157
  - Chapter 6: Persistence of pesticides and their impacts on human health and environment 161
    - 1. Introduction 161
    - 2. Classification of pesticide 163
    - 3. The fate of pesticides in the environment 165
      - 3.1. Pesticides in environment 165
      - 3.2. Pesticides in food 168
      - 3.3. Pesticides in water 170
    - 4. Pesticide affecting human health 172
      - 4.1. Assessment of general human health 172
      - 4.2. Women 173
      - 4.3. Children 175
    - 5. Conclusion 176
    - 6. Future prospective 177
    - References 178
  - Chapter 7: Health risk 185
    - 1. Introduction 185
    - 2. Evaluation of the effect of pesticides on genotoxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity in laboratory conditions 186
    - 3. Evaluation of pesticide genotoxicity using cytogenetic markers 192
    - 4. Impacts of pesticide residues on food safety 197
    - 5. Effects of pesticides on human health 202
    - 6. Pesticide exposure risk assessment 205
      - 6.1. Sparling: The regulatory framework for assessing risks to human health and environmental issues presented by shows 205
      - 6.3. Estimation of dietary exposure 208
      - 6.2. Consumption rate 208
      - 6.4. Risk characterization 209
    - References 211
    - Acknowledgments 211
  - Chapter 8: Neurodevelopmental and reproductive impacts of pesticides on pregnant women 221
    - 1. Introduction 221
    - 2. Effect on health and reproductive life 222
    - 3. Neurodevelopmental effects of OP pesticides 223
    - 4. Concerns at both high and low OP exposures 224
    - 5. Summary 226
    - References 226
  - Chapter 9: Pesticides and human health: The noxious impact on maternal system and fetal development 231
    - 1. Introduction 231
    - 2. History of pesticides 232
    - 3. Toxicity of common pesticides 233
      - 3.2. Carbamates 233
      - 3.1. Organophosphorous pesticides (OPs) 233
      - 3.3. Organochlorines pesticides (OCs) 234
      - 3.4. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids 234
    - 4. Prevention of pesticide exposure 235
    - 5. Adverse effect on human health and fetal development 235
      - 5.1. Eyes 236
      - 5.2. Lungs 236
      - 5.4. Digestive system 237
      - 5.3. Brain 237
      - 5.5. Reproductive system 238
      - 5.7. The placental barrier in pregnant women 239
      - 5.6. Maternal health 239
      - 5.8. Fetal development 240
    - 6. Conclusion 243
    - References 243
    - 7. Future prospects 243
    - Acknowledgments 243
  - Chapter 10: ytogenetical bioindication of pesticidal contamination 249
    - 1. Introduction 249
    - 2. Chromosomal disorders 250
      - 2.1. People 251
      - 2.2. Agricultural animals 254
      - 2.3. Laboratory animals 257
    - 3. Micronuclear analysis 259
      - 3.1. Micronuclear analysis and cytological disorders in nuclear erythrocytes of animals 261
        
        3.1.1. Fish 264
        
        3.1.3. Reptiles 265
        
        3.1.2. Amphibians 265
        
        3.1.4. Birds 266
      - 3.2. Micronuclear analysis and cytological disturbances in the erythrocytes of peripheral blood of mammals and human 266
    - 4. Plant test systems 269
    - 5. Comet-test 273
    - 6. Problems and prospects of cytogenetic bioindication 275
    - References 277
  - Chapter 11: Modulation of soil microbiome and related alterations in response to pesticides 283
    - 1. Introduction 283
    - 2. Impact of pesticides on soil microbial biome 284
      - 2.1. Impact of pesticides on bacterial diversity 284
      - 2.2. Impact of pesticides on mycorrhizae 285
      - 2.3. Impact of pesticides on microalgae 286
    - 3. Pesticides and associated alterations on the metabolism of microbes 290
      - 3.1. Effect on biodegradation and mineralization 290
      - 3.2. Effect on phosphorus solubilization 291
        
        3.2.1. Phosphorus solubilizing enzymes: An ultimately affected participant 293
      - 3.3. Reverberation of pesticides on nitrogen fixation 296
    - 4. Future area of research 298
    - 5. Conclusion 298
    - Acknowledgments 298
    - References 299
  - Chapter 12: Botanical pesticides as alternatives for more sustainable crops and healthy foods 307
    - 1. Introduction 307
      - 1.1. Pesticides in agriculture and the consequences of their use 309
    - 2. Botanical pesticides in agriculture 313
      - 2.1. Plant-based products used against insects and mites 313
      - 2.2. Anti-fungal effects of botanical pesticides 317
      - 2.3. Some remarks on the herbicide effect of plant extracts 320
    - 3. Challenges in the use of plant-based pesticides 321
    - 4. Future recommendations 323
    - 5. Conclusions 330
    - Acknowledgments 331
    - References 331
  - Chapter 13: The potential use of essential oils as natural biocides against plant pathogens 339
    - 1. Introduction 339
      - 1.1. Common diseases in crops 340
    - 2. Biological activities of EOs 342
      - 2.1. EOs with biocidal activities 342
      - 2.2. EOs with antibacterial activities 344
    - 3. Challenges 345
      - 3.1. Non-selective action of EO 345
      - 3.2. EOs effects on non-target soil microorganisms 346
    - 4. Future directions 347
    - 5. Conclusion 347
    - References 348
  - Chapter 14: Sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives to reduce the use of pesticides 351
    - 1. Introduction 351
    - 2. Advantages and disadvantages of conventional pesticides 352
    - 3. Mobility of pesticides in different environments 354
    - 4. Pesticide degradation and the risk of degradation products 356
    - 5. Plant growth-promoting bacteria 360
      - 5.1. Applications of plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) 361
    - 6. Plant pathogens 365
    - 7. Pesticide resistance 368
      - 7.1. Changes in pesticide binding sites 369
      - 7.4. Voltage-dependent sodium channels 369
      - 7.2. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors 369
      - 7.3. GABA receptors and other ligand-gated chlorine channels 369
      - 7.7. Acetylcholinesterase 370
      - 7.5. Insecticidal microbial toxins 370
      - 7.8. Esterases 370
      - 7.6. Biotransformation 370
    - 8. Alternatives to conventional pesticide use 371
      - 8.1. Cultural control 371
      - 8.2. Physical and mechanical control 372
      - 8.3. Biological approach and biopesticides 373
        
        8.3.1. Biological control 373
        
        Direct interactions with plant pathogens 373
        
        Indirect interactions with plant pathogens 374
        
        8.3.2. Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIP) and biochemical pesticides 375
        
        Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIP) 375
        
        Trypsin inhibitors 376
        
        Other bacterial proteins 376
        
        Plant-produced proteins that act as deterrents of feeding (lectins) 376
        
        Biochemical pesticides 376
        
        Compounds derived from higher plants 377
        
        Compounds derived from animals 377
        
        Compounds derived from microorganisms 377
        
        8.4. Integrated pest management 378
        
        9. A new approach for a dual function: Pesticide degradation coupled with biological control 380
        
        9.1. Pure cultures 380
        
        9.2. Design of defined mixed consortia for joint pesticide degradation and biocontrol and future perspectives 381
        
        References 382
      - Chapter 15: Strategies for sustainable and ecofriendly pest management in Agroecosystem 387
        
        1. Introduction: The imminent challenge to human health and ecosystem by chemical agriculture 387
        
        2. Biopesticides-The future of pest control 388
        
        2.1. Microbial pesticides 390
        
        2.1.1. Bacteria 392
        
        2.1.2. Fungi 392
        
        2.1.3. Viruses 393
        
        2.1.4. Protozoans 394
        
        2.3. Biochemical pesticides 395
        
        2.3.1. Third-generation pesticides/juvenile hormone analogs 396
        
        2.3.2. Semiochemicals and allelochemicals for pest control 397
        
        2.2. Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) 395
        
        2.4. Vermicompost 397
        
        2.5. Plant extract and essential oil-based pesticides 398
        
        2.6. Neem oil as a pest control agent 399
        
        3. Conclusion 399
        
        References 400
      - Chapter 16: Pesticides removal from aqueous streams through anaerobic and aerobic biological treatment processes 405
        
        1. Introduction 406

Author's affiliation

Mika Sillanpää: Laboratory of Green Chemistry, Lappeenranta U

Sources, Health Risks, and Remediation

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