Agro-Industrial Wastes as Feedstock for Enzyme Production

Description

Agro-industrial Wastes as Feedstock for Enzyme Production: Apply and Exploit the Emerging and Valuable Use Options of Waste Biomass explores the current state-of-the-art bioprocesses in enzyme production using agro-industrial wastes with respect to their generation, current methods of disposal, the problems faced in terms of waste and regulation, and potential value-added protocols for these wastes. It surveys areas ripe for further inquiry as well as future trends in the field. Under each section, the individual chapters present up-to-date and in-depth information on bioprospecting of agro-industrial wastes to obtain enzymes of economic importance.

This book covers research gaps, including valorization of fruit and vegetable by-product—a key contribution toward sustainability that makes the utmost use of agricultural produce while employing low-energy and cost-efficient bioprocesses. Written by experts in the field of enzyme technology, the book provides valuable information for academic researchers, graduate students, and industry scientists working in industrial-food microbiology, biotechnology, bioprocess technology, post-harvest technology, agriculture, waste management, and the food industry.

Addresses key opportunities and challenges in the emerging field of enzyme technology, with an emphasis on energy and bio-based industrial applications
Explores the current state of the art bioprocesses in enzyme production using fruit and vegetable wastes with respect to their generation, current methods of disposal, and problems faced in terms of waste and regulation
Presents in-depth information on bioprospecting of fruit and vegetable to obtain enzymes of economic importance
Delves into environmental concerns and economic considerations related to fruit and vegetable processing by-products

Front Cover 2
AGRO-INDUSTRIAL WASTES AS FEEDSTOCK FOR ENZYME PRODUCTION 3
AGRO-INDUSTRIAL WASTES AS FEEDSTOCK FOR ENZYME PRODUCTION: Apply and Exploit the Emerging and Valuable Use Options of Waste Biom 5
Copyright 6
CONTENTS 7
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 13
1 - Microbial Enzyme Factories: Current Trends in Production Processes and Commercial Aspects 17
- INTRODUCTION 17
- MICROORGANISMS AS A POTENTIAL SOURCE FOR HYDROLASES 19
- AGRO-INDUSTRIAL RESIDUES FOR HYDROLASES PRODUCTION 19
- RECOVERY AND PURIFICATION OF HYDROLASES 26
- ENZYME APPLICATIONS AND GLOBAL MARKET 27
- SOME COMMERCIAL HYDROLYSES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE 29
- CONCLUSIONS 33
- REFERENCES 34

Front Cover 2
AGRO-INDUSTRIAL WASTES AS FEEDSTOCK FOR ENZYME PRODUCTION 3
AGRO-INDUSTRIAL WASTES AS FEEDSTOCK FOR ENZYME PRODUCTION: Apply and Exploit the Emerging and Valuable Use Options of Waste Biom 5
Copyright 6
CONTENTS 7
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 13
1 - Microbial Enzyme Factories: Current Trends in Production Processes and Commercial Aspects 17
- INTRODUCTION 17
- MICROORGANISMS AS A POTENTIAL SOURCE FOR HYDROLASES 19
- AGRO-INDUSTRIAL RESIDUES FOR HYDROLASES PRODUCTION 19
- RECOVERY AND PURIFICATION OF HYDROLASES 26
- ENZYME APPLICATIONS AND GLOBAL MARKET 27
- SOME COMMERCIAL HYDROLYSES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE 29
- CONCLUSIONS 33
- REFERENCES 34
2 - Fruit and Vegetable Processing Waste: Renewable Feed Stocks for Enzyme Production 39
- INTRODUCTION 39
- CHARACTERIZATION AND COMPOSITION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING WASTE 40
- IMPORTANT ENZYMES FOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 45
  - Cellulolytic Enzymes 45
  - Hemicellulases 46
  - Proteases 47
  - Lipases 47
  - Pectinases 47
  - Amylases 48
  - Ligninolytic Enzymes 48
- ENZYME PRODUCTION THROUGH FERMENTATION 49
  - Solid-State Fermentation 49
  - Submerged Fermentation 50
- POTENTIAL OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLE SOLID WASTE FOR THE PRODUCTION OF ENZYMES 51
  - Citrus Waste 51
  - Apple Residues 54
  - Grapes 55
  - Mango 56
  - Banana 57
  - Pineapple 57
  - Passion Fruit 58
  - Jackfruit 58
  - Kiwifruit 59
  - Date Palm 59
  - By-Products of Vegetable Processing 60
    - Tomato Waste 60
    - Onion 61
    - Olive 61
    - Carrot 61
    - Red Beet 62
    - Potato 63
  - CONCLUSIONS 64
  - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 64
  - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 65
  - REFERENCES 65
  - FURTHER READING 74
- 3 - Bioprocesses for Enzyme Production Using Agro-Industrial Wastes: Technical Challenges and Commercialization Potential 77
  - INTRODUCTION 77
  - MAJOR AGRO-INDUSTRIAL RESIDUES/WASTES 80
    - Agricultural Crop Residues and By-Products 80
      - Wheat Straw 80
      - Rice Straw 80
      - Wheat Bran 81
      - Current Usage/Disposal Techniques 81
      - Corn Cobs 81
    - Food Wastes 81
      - Oil Cakes 81
      - Sugarcane Bagasse 82
      - Fruit and Vegetable Waste 82
      - Current Usage/Disposal Techniques 83
    - ENZYMES: THE BIOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 83
    - BIOPROCESSES FOR ENZYME PRODUCTION USING AGRO-INDUSTRIAL WASTES 86
      - Submerged Fermentation (SmF) 86
    - SOLID-STATE FERMENTATION (SSF) 86
    - COMMERCIALIZATION POTENTIAL 87
    - EFFECT OF FERMENTATION PARAMETERS 88
    - CARBON AND NITROGEN SOURCE 88
    - TEMPERATURE 95
    - AERATION 95
    - PH 95
    - INOCULUM AGE AND SIZE 96
    - SUBSTRATE PRETREATMENT 96
    - TECHNICAL CHALLENGES AND NEW TRENDS IN ENZYME PRODUCTION USING AGRO-RESIDUES 97
      - SSF Processes 97
    - SCALE-UP 97
    - HEAT DISPERSAL 97
    - BIOMASS DETERMINATION 98
      - SmF Processes 98
    - CONCLUSIONS 99
    - REFERENCES 99
    - FURTHER READING 109
  - 4 - Industrial Enzymes: Recovery and Purification Challenges 111
    - ENZYME PURIFICATION: A TRIAL AND ERROR STRATEGY 111
    - MAJOR INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES 111
    - PURIFICATION OF ENZYMES LARGELY DEPENDS ON ITS APPLICATION 112
    - CHALLENGES IN ENZYME PURIFICATION 113
    - MONITORING THE PROGRESS OF ENZYME PURIFICATION 114
    - IMPORTANT STEPS IN ENZYME PURIFICATION 115
    - DETERMINATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY BY SIMPLE METHODS 117
    - FRACTIONATION OF ENZYMES WITH AMMONIUM SULFATE AND OTHER SOLVENTS 118
    - ENZYME INACTIVATION AND CONTROL 118
    - CHROMATOGRAPHIC STEPS 120
    - AUTOMATION OF PROTEIN PURIFICATION 122
    - ULTRAFILTRATION 122
    - CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 123
    - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 124
    - REFERENCES 124
    - ABBREVIATIONS 124
  - 5 - LOW-COST ENZYMES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BIOENERGY SECTOR*,‡ 127
    - LIGNOCELLULOSE BIOMASS AND 2G ETHANOL 127
      - Lignocellulose Biomass 127
    - ENZYMES IN BIOMASS HYDROLYSIS 130
      - Low-cost Enzymes: Present and Perspectives 130
      - Enzymes in Native Bioflora: Microorganisms Working for Us 130
    - ORANGE BAGASSE AS AN EXAMPLE OF AGRO-INDUSTRIAL WASTE WITH HIGH REUSABLE VALUE 133
      - Composition 133
      - Enzymatic Hydrolysis Using Native Pathogen Proteins: Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 135
      - Biofuel-related Enzymes From Other Sources 137
      - Enzyme Recycling 140
    - NATIVE MICROORGANISMS 141
    - REFERENCES 142
    - FINAL REMARKS 142
    - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 142
    - FURTHER READING 146
  - 6 - Role of Enzymes in Environment Cleanup/Remediation 149
    - INTRODUCTION 149
    - POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 150
    - METHODOLOGIES TO CLEANUP POLLUTED ENVIRONMENTS 152
    - ENZYMES IMPORTANT TO POLLUTANT REMOVAL 154
      - Laccases 155
      - Dehalogenases 159
    - ENZYMES AS INDICATORS OF POLLUTED/RESTORED ENVIRONMENTS 160
    - ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS OF ENZYMES AS ENVIRONMENTAL ACTORS 163
    - CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 165
    - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 166
    - REFERENCES 167
    - FURTHER READING 171
  - 7 - Enzymes: Applications in Pulp and Paper Industry 173
    - INTRODUCTION 173
    - APPLICATION OF XYLANASES FOR THE DELIGNIFICATION OF PULP 174
    - FACTORS AFFECTING XYLANASE TREATMENT EFFICIENCY 175
    - COMMERCIAL AVAILABILITY OF XYLANASES 175
    - MECHANISM OF DELIGNIFICATION OF PULP WITH XYLANASES 175
    - APPLICATION OF LACCASES FOR THE DELIGNIFICATION OF PULP (TABLE 7.1) 176
    - DELIGNIFICATION OF PULP WITH FUNGAL LACCASES 176
    - DELIGNIFICATION OF PULP WITH BACTERIAL LACCASES 180
    - FACTORS AFFECTING THE LACCASE-BASED BIOBLEACHING OF PULP 181
    - SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS OF ENZYMES INVOLVED IN BIOBLEACHING OF PULP 181
    - DE-INKING OF OLD NEWSPRINT BY ENZYME TREATMENT 182
    - ROLE OF ENZYMES IN PITCH CONTROL 182
    - APPLICATION OF LACCASE FOR GRAFTING OF PULP FIBERS 183
    - DECOLORIZATION AND DETOXIFICATION EFFECT OF LACCASE ON WASTEWATERS FROM PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY 184
    - CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 184
    - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 185
    - REFERENCES 185
    - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 185
    - FURTHER READING 188
  - 8 - Enzymes in Food Processing 189
    - INTRODUCTION 189
    - ENZYMATIC APPLICATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING 190
      - Baked Goods 190
      - Beer Industry 196
    - DAIRY INDUSTRY 197
      - Fruit and Vegetable Juices 201
      - Meat, Fish, and Seafood 201
      - Sugars, Sweeteners, and Prebiotics 202
        
        Starch Hydrolysis 202
        
        Other Sweeteners 203
      - Prebiotics 205
        
        Galactooligosaccharides 205
        
        Fructooligosaccharides 205
        
        Glucooligosaccharides 206
      - Wine Making 206
    - CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 208
    - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 209
    - REFERENCES 209
    - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 209
    - FURTHER READING 215
  - 9 - Seafood Enzymes and Their Application in Food Processing 217
    - INTRODUCTION 217
    - SEAFOOD ENZYMES 218
      - Nucleotide-Degrading Enzymes 218
        
        K-value 219
      - Myosin ATPases 219
      - Histidine Decarboxylase 220
      - Lactate Dehydrogenase 220
      - Lysosomal and Mitochondrial Enzymes 220
      - Urease 221
      - Trimethylamine Oxide Degradation by Enzymes 221
        
        TMAO Oxidoreductase 221
        
        TMAO Demethylase 221
      - Lipoxygenases 222
      - Lipases and Phospholipases 222
      - Transglutaminases 223
      - Digestive Proteinases 225
      - Trypsin Isozymes 226
      - Polyphenoloxidases 226
      - Tryptophanase 229
      - Chitinolytic Enzymes 229
      - Ligninolytic Enzymes 230
      - Lipoxygenases 230
    - APPLICATIONS OF ENZYMES 231
      - Specialty Products 231
        
        Mince Products 231
        
        Caviar and Roe Production 232
        
        Cured Fish Products 232
        
        PUFA-Enriched Fish Oils 232
        
        Protein Hydrolysates 233
        
        Seafood Flavorings 233
        
        Isolation of Pigments 234
        
        Fish Sauces and Fermented Products 234
        
        Reduction in the Viscosity of Stickwater 235
        
        Ripening of Salted Fish 235
        
        Meat Tenderization 235
        
        Removal of Off-Odor and Fishy Taste 236
        
        Extension of Shelf Life 236
      - Enzymes as Processing Aids 236
        
        Descaling 237
        
        Deskinning 237
        
        Membrane Removal 238
      - Application in Other Foods and Feeds 239
        
        Seafood Enzymes in Dairy Technology 239
        
        Cold-active Enzymes 240
        
        Seafood Enzymes in Feed Products 240
        
        Fish Silage 240
      - CONCLUSIONS 241
      - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 242
      - REFERENCES 243
      - FURTHER READING 248
    - 10 - Enzymes for Nutritional Enrichment of Agro-Residues as Livestock Feed 249
      - INTRODUCTION 249
      - FEED SUBSTRATES FOR ANIMAL NUTRITION 251
        
        Energy/Carbohydrate Sources 252
        
        Phytate/Phosphorus 253
        
        Protein Substrates 253
      - FORAGE, SILAGE, AND RELATED FEED SUBSTRATES 255
        
        Agricultural and Food Industry Wastes, Refuse, and Residues 255
      - FRUIT WASTES 256
        
        Apples 256
        
        Plantains and Bananas 257
        
        Citrus Wastes 257
        
        Pineapple 257
        
        Other Fruit and Vegetable Wastes and Residues 258
        
        Grain and Other Crop Residues 258
        
        Biofuel Wastes and By-Products as Animal Feed 258
      - ENZYMES USED IN ANIMAL FEED SUPPLEMENTATION 259
        
        Carbohydrases 259
        
        Amylases 259
        
        Cellulase and Xylanase Complexes (Fibrolytic Enzymes) 261
        
        Proteases 261
        
        Phytases 263
        
        Combined Enzymes and Enzyme Complexes 264
      - USE OF EXOGENOUS ENZYMES IN ANIMAL NUTRITION 264
        
        Enzymes in Swine Nutrition 264
        
        Enzymes in Ruminant Nutrition 265
        
        Enzymes in Poultry Nutrition 266
        
        Enzymes in Fish Nutrition 267
      - CONCLUSIONS 268
      - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 269
      - REFERENCES 269
      - FURTHER READING 276
    - 11 - Potential Applications of Enzymes in Brewery and Winery 277
      - INTRODUCTION 277
      - ENZYMES IN BREWING 278
        
        Malting Process: A Natural Brewing Enzymes Factory 278
        
        Beer Production (Brewhouse Processing) 280
        
        Enzymatic Processes in Yeast Fermentation in Beer 281
        
        Enzyme Action for Enhancing Maturation 282
        
        Enzyme Action in Low-caloric, Low-carbohydrate, and Gluten-free Beer Production 283
        
        Trends of Enzyme Use in Brewing 285
      - ENZYMES IN WINERY 286
        
        Wine making 286
        
        ENZYMES IN WINERY 286
        
        Enzymes Released by Yeasts 287
        
        Enzymes in Grapes 287
        
        Commercial Enzymes Applied in Winery 288
        
        Trends of Enzyme Use in Winery 291
      - REFERENCES 291
      - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 291
      - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 291
      - FURTHER READING 294
    - 12 - Recent Applications of Enzymes in Personal Care Products 295
      - INTRODUCTION 295
        
        Superoxide Dismutase 296
        
        Peroxidase 298
        
        Tyrosinase 301
        
        Proteases 303
        
        Lipases 304
        
        Hyaluronidase 304
      - APPLICATION OF NANOPARTICLES FOR ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION 308
      - FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 311
      - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 312
      - REFERENCES 312
    - 13 - Strategies to Enhance Enzyme Activity for Industrial Processes in Managing Agro-Industrial Waste 315
      - INTRODUCTION 315
      - ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION 316
      - DIFFERENT STRATEGIES FOR ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION ON VARIOUS SUPPORTS 318
      - NANOMATERIALS AS DYNAMIC SUPPORTS FOR ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION 323
      - FUTURE DIRECTIONS 325
      - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 325
      - REFERENCES 325
      - FURTHER READING 328
    - 14 - Biotechnological Production of Enzymes Using Agro-Industrial Wastes: Economic Considerations, Commercialization Potential, 329
      - INTRODUCTION 329
      - FACTORS DECIDING THE ECONOMICS OF ENZYME PRODUCTION 330
        
        Upstream Processes 330
        
        Downstream Processes 334
        
        Other Miscellaneous Factors 336
      - COMMERCIALIZATION POTENTIAL OF ENZYMES 336

Apply and Exploit the Emerging and Valuable Use Options of Waste Biomass

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