Wind Effects on Structures

Opis

Provides structural engineers with the knowledge and practical tools needed to perform structural designs for wind that incorporate major technological, conceptual, analytical and computational advances achieved in the last two decades.

With clear explanations and documentation of the concepts, methods, algorithms, and software available for accounting for wind loads in structural design, it also describes the wind engineer's contributions in sufficient detail that they can be effectively scrutinized by the structural engineer in charge of the design.

Wind Effects on Structures: Modern Structural Design for Wind, 4^th Edition is organized in four sections. The first covers atmospheric flows, extreme wind speeds, and bluff body aerodynamics. The second examines the design of buildings, and includes chapters on aerodynamic loads; dynamic and effective wind-induced loads; wind effects with specified MRIs; low-rise buildings; tall buildings; and more. The third part is devoted to aeroelastic effects, and covers both fundamentals and applications. The last part considers other structures and special topics such as trussed frameworks; offshore structures; and tornado effects.

Offering readers the knowledge and practical tools needed to develop structural designs for wind loadings, this book:

Points out significant limitations in the design of buildings based on such techniques as the high-frequency force balance
Discusses powerful algorithms, tools, and software needed for the effective design for wind, and provides numerous examples of application
Discusses techniques applicable to structures other than buildings, including stacks and suspended-span bridges
Features several appendices on Elements of Probability and Statistics; Peaks-over-Threshold Poisson-Process Procedure for Estimating Peaks; estimates of the WTC Towers’ Response to Wind and their shortcomings; and more

Wind Effects on Structures: Modern Structural Design for Wind, 4^th Edition is an excellent text for structural engineers, wind engineers, and structural engineering students and faculty.

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Cover 2
Title Page 6
Copyright 7
Contents 10
Preface to the Fourth Edition 22
Introduction 24
Part I Atmospheric Flows, Extreme Wind Speeds, Bluff Body Aerodynamics 28
Chapter 1 Atmospheric Circulations 30
- 1.1 Atmospheric Thermodynamics 30
  - 1.1.1 Temperature of the Atmosphere 30
  - 1.1.2 Radiation in the Atmosphere 31
  - 1.1.3 Compression and Expansion. Atmospheric Stratification 32
  - 1.1.4 Molecular and Eddy Conduction 33
  - 1.1.5 Condensation of Water Vapor 34
- 1.2 Atmospheric Hydrodynamics 34

Cover 2
Title Page 6
Copyright 7
Contents 10
Preface to the Fourth Edition 22
Introduction 24
Part I Atmospheric Flows, Extreme Wind Speeds, Bluff Body Aerodynamics 28
Chapter 1 Atmospheric Circulations 30
- 1.1 Atmospheric Thermodynamics 30
  - 1.1.1 Temperature of the Atmosphere 30
  - 1.1.2 Radiation in the Atmosphere 31
  - 1.1.3 Compression and Expansion. Atmospheric Stratification 32
  - 1.1.4 Molecular and Eddy Conduction 33
  - 1.1.5 Condensation of Water Vapor 34
- 1.2 Atmospheric Hydrodynamics 34
- 1.3 Windstorms 37
  - 1.3.1 Large‐Scale Storms 37
  - 1.3.2 Local Storms 37
- References 43
Chapter 2 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 44
- 2.1 Wind Speeds and Averaging Times 44
- 2.2 Equations of Mean Motion in the ABL 46
- 2.3 Wind Speed Profiles in Horizontally Homogeneous Flow Over Flat Surfaces 47
  - 2.3.1 The Ekman Spiral 48
  - 2.3.2 Neutrally Stratified ABL: Asymptotic Approach 49
  - 2.3.3 Brunt‐Väisäla Frequency. Types of Neutrally Stratified ABLs 51
  - 2.3.4 The Logarithmic Mean Wind Profile 54
  - 2.3.5 Power Law Description of ABL Wind Speed Profiles 57
  - 2.3.6 ABL Flows in Different Surface Roughness Regimes 58
  - 2.3.7 Relation Between Wind Speeds with Different Averaging Times 60
- 2.4 ABL Turbulence in Horizontally Homogeneous Flow Over Smooth Flat Surfaces 62
  - 2.4.1 Turbulence Intensities 62
  - 2.4.2 Integral Turbulence Scales 63
  - 2.4.3 Spectra of Turbulent Wind Speed Fluctuations 65
  - 2.4.4 Cross‐spectral Density Functions 71
- 2.5 Horizontally Non‐Homogeneous Flows 72
  - 2.5.1 Flow Near a Change in Surface Roughness. Fetch and Terrain Exposure 72
  - 2.5.2 Wind Profiles over Escarpments 73
  - 2.5.3 Hurricane and Thunderstorm Winds 75
- References 78
Chapter 3 Extreme Wind Speeds 82
- 3.1 Cumulative Distributions, Exceedance Probabilities, Mean Recurrence Intervals 82
  - 3.1.1 Probability of Exceedance and Mean Recurrence Intervals 82
    - 3.1.1.1 A Case Study: The Fair Die 82
    - 3.1.1.2 Extension to Extreme Wind Speeds 83
  - 3.1.2 Mixed Wind Climates 83
- 3.2 Wind Speed Data 84
  - 3.2.1 Meteorological and Micrometeorological Homogeneity of the Data 84
  - 3.2.2 Directional and Non‐Directional Wind Speeds 85
  - 3.2.3 Wind Speed Data Sets 85
    - 3.2.3.1 Data in the Public Domain 85
    - 3.2.3.2 Data Available Commercially 87
  - 3.3 N‐year Speed Estimation from Measured Wind Speeds 88
    - 3.3.1 Epochal Versus Peaks‐Over‐Threshold Approach to Estimation of Extremes 88
    - 3.3.2 Extreme Value Distributions and Their Use in Wind Climatology 89
    - 3.3.3 Wind Speed Estimation by the Epochal Approach 90
      - 3.3.3.1 Method of Moments 90
    - 3.3.4 Sampling Errors in the Estimation of Extreme Speeds 91
    - 3.3.5 Wind Speed Estimation by the Peaks‐Over‐Threshold Approach 92
    - 3.3.6 Spatial Smoothing 93
    - 3.3.7 Development of Large Wind Speed Datasets 93
  - 3.4 Tornado Characterization and Climatology 93
    - 3.4.1 Tornado Flow Modeling 93
    - 3.4.2 Summary of NUREG/CR‐4461, Rev. 2 Report 94
    - 3.4.3 Design‐Basis Tornado for Nuclear Power Plants 95
    - References 97
  - Chapter 4 Bluff Body Aerodynamics 100
    - 4.1 Governing Equations 101
      - 4.1.1 Equations of Motion and Continuity 101
      - 4.1.2 The Navier–Stokes Equation 102
      - 4.1.3 Bernoulli's Equation 103
    - 4.2 Flow in a Curved Path: Vortex Flow 104
    - 4.3 Boundary Layers and Separation 105
    - 4.4 Wake and Vortex Formations in Two‐Dimensional Flow 109
    - 4.5 Pressure, Lift, Drag, and Moment Effects on Two‐Dimensional Structural Forms 116
    - 4.6 Representative Flow Effects in Three Dimensions 120
      - 4.6.1 Cases Retaining Two‐Dimensional Features 123
      - 4.6.2 Structures in Three‐Dimensional Flows: Case Studies 126
    - References 129
  - Chapter 5 Aerodynamic Testing 132
    - 5.1 Introduction 132
    - 5.2 Basic Similarity Requirements 132
      - 5.2.1 Dimensional Analysis 132
      - 5.2.2 Basic Scaling Considerations 134
    - 5.3 Aerodynamic Testing Facilities 135
    - 5.4 Wind Tunnel Simulation of Atmospheric Boundary Layers 147
      - 5.4.1 Effect of Type of Spires and Floor Roughness Elements 147
      - 5.4.2 Effect of Integral Scale and Turbulence Intensity 149
      - 5.4.3 Effects of Reynolds Number Similarity Violation 150
      - 5.4.4 Comparisons of Wind Tunnel and Full‐Scale Pressure Measurements 152
    - 5.5 Blockage Effects 154
    - 5.6 The High‐Frequency Force Balance 155
    - 5.7 Simultaneous Pressure Measurements at Multiple Taps 156
    - References 159
  - Chapter 6 Computational Wind Engineering 162
    - 6.1 Introduction 162
    - 6.2 Governing Equations 163
    - 6.3 Discretization Methods and Grid Types 163
    - 6.4 Initial and Boundary Conditions 164
      - 6.4.1 Initial Conditions 164
      - 6.4.2 Boundary Conditions 165
    - 6.6 Stability 166
    - 6.5 Solving Equations 166
    - 6.7 Turbulent Flow Simulations 167
      - 6.7.1 Resolved and Modeled Turbulence 167
      - 6.7.2 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) 167
      - 6.7.3 Large Eddy Simulations (LES) 169
      - 6.7.4 Reynolds‐Averaged Navier–Stokes Simulation (RANS) 171
      - 6.7.5 Hybrid RANS/LES Simulation 173
      - 6.7.6 Performance of Turbulence Models 175
    - 6.8 Verification and Validation. Uncertainty Quantification 175
      - 6.8.1 Sources of Inaccuracy in CWE Simulations 176
      - 6.8.2 Verification and Validation 177
      - 6.8.3 Quantification of Errors and Uncertainties 178
    - 6.9 CWE versus Wind Tunnel Testing 178
    - References 179
    - 6.10 Best Practice Guidelines 179
  - Chapter 7 Uncertainties in Wind Engineering Data 184
    - 7.2 Statistical Framework for Estimating Uncertainties in the Wind Loads 184
    - 7.1 Introduction 184
    - 7.3 Individual and Overall Uncertainties 186
      - 7.3.1 Uncertainties in the Estimation of Extreme Wind Speeds 186
      - 7.3.2 Uncertainties in the Estimation of Exposure Factors 187
      - 7.3.3 Uncertainties in the Estimation of Pressure Coefficients 188
      - 7.3.4 Uncertainties in Directionality Factors 191
    - References 191
  - Part II Design of Buildings 194
  - Chapter 8 Structural Design for Wind 196
    - 8.1 Modern Structural Design for Wind: A Brief History 196
    - 8.2 Database‐Assisted Design 198
    - 8.3 Equivalent Static Wind Loads 201
    - References 203
    - 8.4 DAD versus ESWL 203
  - Chapter 9 Stiffness Matrices, Second‐Order Effects, and Influence Coefficients 206
    - 9.1 Stiffness Matrices 206
    - 9.2 Second‐Order Effects 207
    - 9.3 Influence Coefficients 208
    - References 208
  - Chapter 10 Aerodynamic Loads 210
    - 10.2 Pressure Tap Placement Patterns and Tributary Areas 210
    - 10.1 Introduction 210
    - 10.3 Aerodynamic Loading for Database‐Assisted Design 211
    - 10.4 Peaks of Spatially Averaged Pressure Coefficients for Use in Code Provisions 213
      - 10.4.1 Pressures Within an Area A Contained in a Specified Pressure Zone 213
      - 10.4.2 Identifying Areas A Within a Specified Pressure Zone 214
    - References 220
    - 10.5 Aerodynamic Pressures and Wind‐Driven Rain 220
  - Chapter 11 Dynamic and Effective Wind‐Induced Loads 222
    - 11.1 Introduction 222
    - 11.2 The Single‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Linear System 223
    - 11.3 Time‐Domain Solutions for 3‐D Response of Multi‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Systems 224
      - 11.3.1 Natural Frequencies and Modes of Vibration 225
      - 11.3.2 Solutions of Equations of Motion of Forced System 226
    - 11.4 Simultaneous Pressure Measurements and Effective Wind‐induced Loads 227
    - Reference 228
  - Chapter 12 Wind Load Factors and Design Mean Recurrence Intervals 230
    - 12.1 Introduction 230
    - 12.2 Uncertainties in the Dynamic Response 231
    - 12.3 Wind Load Factors: Definition and Calibration 232
    - 12.4 Wind Load Factors vs. Individual Uncertainties 233
      - 12.4.1 Effect of Wind Speed Record Length 233
      - 12.4.2 Effect of Aerodynamic Interpolation Errors 233
      - 12.4.5 Flexible Buildings 234
      - 12.4.3 Number of Pressure Taps Installed on Building Models 234
      - 12.4.6 Notes 234
      - 12.4.4 Effect of Reducing Uncertainty in the Terrain Exposure Factor 234
    - 12.5 Wind Load Factors and Design Mean Recurrence Intervals 235
    - References 236
  - Chapter 13 Wind Effects with Specified MRIs: DCIs, Inter‐Story Drift, and Accelerations 238
    - 13.1 Introduction 238
    - 13.2 Directional Wind Speeds and Response Surfaces 239
    - 13.3 Transformation of Wind Speed Matrix into Vectors of Largest Wind Effects 240
      - 13.3.1 Matrix of Largest Directional Wind Speeds 240
      - 13.3.2 Transformation of Matrix [Uij] into Matrix of Demand‐to‐Capacity Indexes [DCIm(Uij)] 241
      - 13.3.3 Vector {DCIm,i}={maxj(DCImpk(Uij))} 241
    - 13.4 Estimation of Directional Wind Effects with Specified MRIs 241
    - 13.5 Non‐Directional Wind Speeds: Wind Directionality Reduction Factors 242
    - 13.7 Inter‐Story Drift and Floor Accelerations 244
    - 13.6 Demand‐to‐Capacity Indexes 244
    - References 245
  - Chapter 14 Equivalent Static Wind Loads 246
    - 14.1 Introduction 246
    - 14.2 Estimation of Equivalent Static Wind Loads 246
    - References 251
  - Chapter 15 Wind‐Induced Discomfort in and Around Buildings 252
    - 15.1 Introduction 252
    - 15.2 Occupant Wind‐Induced Discomfort in Tall Buildings 253
      - 15.2.1 Human Response to Wind‐Induced Vibrations 253
    - 15.3 Comfort Criteria for Pedestrian Areas Within a Built Environment 254
      - 15.3.1 Wind Speeds, Pedestrian Discomfort, and Comfort Criteria 255
    - 15.4 Zones of High Surface Winds Within a Built Environment 256
      - 15.4.1 Wind Effects Near Tall Buildings 256
      - 15.4.2 Wind Speeds at Pedestrian Level in a Basic Reference Case 259
      - 15.4.3 Case Studies 262
    - 15.5 Frequencies of Ocurrence of Unpleasant Winds 269
      - 15.5.1 Detailed Estimation Procedure 269
      - 15.5.2 Simplified Estimation Procedure 273
    - References 275
  - Chapter 16 Mitigation of Building Motions 278
    - 16.1 Introduction 278
    - 16.2 Single‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Systems 279
    - 16.3 TMDs for Multiple‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Systems 282
    - References 283
  - Chapter 17 Rigid Portal Frames 286
    - 17.1 Introduction 286
    - 17.2 Aerodynamic and Wind Climatological Databases 287
    - 17.3 Structural System 288
    - 17.4 Overview of the Design Procedure 289
    - 17.5 Interpolation Methods 290
    - 17.6 Comparisons Between Results Based on DAD and on ASCE 7 Standard 291
      - 17.6.1 Buildings with Various Eave Heights 291
      - 17.6.2 Buildings with Various Roof Slopes 292
    - References 292
  - Chapter 18 Tall Buildings 294
    - 18.2 Preliminary Design and Design Iterations 294
    - 18.1 Introduction 294
    - 18.3 Wind Engineering Contribution to the Design Process 295
    - 18.4 Using the DAD&uscore;ESWL Software 295
      - 18.4.1 Accessing the DAD&uscore;ESWL Software 296
      - 18.4.2 Project Directory and its Contents 296
      - 18.4.3 Software Activation. Graphical User Interface 297
    - 18.5 Steel Building Design by the DAD and the ESWL Procedures: Case Studies 298
      - 18.5.1 Building Description 298
      - 18.5.2 Using the DAD and the ESWL Options 301
    - References 307
  - Part III Aeroelastic Effects 310
    - References 312
  - Chapter 19 Vortex‐Induced Vibrations 314
    - 19.1 Lock‐In as an Aeroelastic Phenomenon 314
    - 19.2 Vortex‐Induced Oscillations of Circular Cylinders 314
    - 19.3 Across‐Wind Response of Chimneys and Towers with Circular Cross Section 319
    - References 323
  - Chapter 20 Galloping and Torsional Divergence 324
    - 20.1 Galloping Motions 324
      - 20.1.1 Glauert–Den Hartog Necessary Condition for Galloping Motion 324
      - 20.1.3 Galloping of Two Elastically Coupled Square Cylinders 327
      - 20.1.2 Modeling of Galloping Motion 327
    - 20.2 Torsional Divergence 330
    - References 331
  - Chapter 21 Flutter 332
    - 21.1 Formulation of the Two‐Dimensional Bridge Flutter Problem in Smooth Flow 333
    - 21.2 Aeroelastic Lift and Moment Acting on Airfoils 334
    - 21.3 Aeroelastic Lift, Drag And Moment Acting on Bridge Decks 335
    - 21.5 Two‐Dimensional Bridge Deck Response to Turbulent Wind in the Presence of Aeroelastic Effects 338
    - 21.4 Solution of the Flutter Equations for Bridges 338
    - References 339
  - Chapter 22 Slender Chimneys and Towers 342
    - 22.1 Slender Chimneys with Circular Cross Section 342
      - 22.1.1 Slender Chimneys Assumed to be Rigid 342
      - 22.1.3 Approximate Expressions for the Across‐Wind Response 345
      - 22.1.2 Flexible Slender Chimneys 345
    - 22.2 Aeroelastic Response of Slender Structures with Square and Rectangular Cross Section 348
    - 22.3 Alleviation of Vortex‐Induced Oscillations 352
    - References 354
  - Chapter 23 Suspended‐Span Bridges 358
    - 23.1 Introduction 358
    - 23.2 Wind Tunnel Testing 358
    - 23.3 Response to Vortex Shedding 362
    - 23.4 Flutter and Buffeting of the Full‐Span Bridge 365
      - 23.4.1 Theory 365
      - 23.4.2 Example: Critical Flutter Velocity and Buffeting Response of Golden Gate Bridge 368
    - 23.5 Stay Cable Vibrations 371
      - 23.5.2 Mitigation Approaches 371
      - 23.5.1 Cable Vibration Characteristics 371
    - References 372
  - Part IV Other Structures and Special Topics 374
  - Chapter 24 Trussed Frameworks and Plate Girders 376
    - 24.1 Single Trusses and Girders 377
    - 24.2 Pairs of Trusses and of Plate Girders 379
      - 24.2.1 Trusses Normal to Wind 380
      - 24.2.2 Trusses Skewed with Respect to Wind Direction 380
      - 24.2.3 Pairs of Solid Plates and Girders 382
    - 24.3 Multiple Frame Arrays 384
    - 24.4 Square and Triangular Towers 388
      - 24.4.1 Aerodynamic Data for Square and Triangular Towers 388
    - References 393
  - Chapter 25 Offshore Structures 394
    - 25.1 Wind Loading on Offshore Structures 394
      - 25.1.1 Wind Loads on Semisubmersible Units 395
      - 25.1.2 Wind Loads on a Guyed Tower Platform 398
    - 25.2 Dynamic Wind Effects on Compliant Offshore Structures 403
      - 25.2.1 Turbulent Wind Effects on Tension Leg Platform Surge 403
    - References 409
  - Chapter 26 Tensile Membrane Structures 412
    - References 413
  - Chapter 27 Tornado Wind and Atmospheric Pressure Change Effects 416
    - 27.1 Introduction 416
    - 27.2 Wind Pressures 417
    - 27.3 Atmospheric Pressure Change Loading 420
    - 27.4 Experimental Modeling of Tornado‐Like Wind Flows 423
    - References 424
  - Chapter 28 Tornado‐ and Hurricane‐Borne Missile Speeds 426
    - 28.1 Introduction 426
    - 28.2 Tornado‐Borne Missile Speeds 426
      - 28.2.1 Deterministic Modeling of Design‐Basis Missile Speeds 427
      - 28.2.2 Probabilistic Modeling of Design‐Basis Missile Speeds 428
    - 28.3 Hurricane‐Borne Missile Speeds 430
      - 28.3.1 Basic Assumptions 430
      - 28.3.2 Numerical Solutions 432
      - 28.3.3 Simplified Flow Field: Closed Form Solutions 433
    - References 435
  - Appendices 436

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Afiljacja autora

Emil Simiu: National Bureau of Standards, Maryland

Modern Structural Design for Wind

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