International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences

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Fully revised and updated, the second edition of the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, first published in 2001, offers a source of social and behavioral sciences reference material that is broader and deeper than any other. Available in both print and online editions, it comprises over 3,900 articles, commissioned by 71 Section Editors, and includes 90,000 bibliographic references as well as comprehensive name and subject indexes.

Provides authoritative, foundational, interdisciplinary knowledge across the wide range of behavioral and social sciences fields
Discusses history, current trends and future directions
Topics are cross-referenced with related topics and each article highlights further reading

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e9780080970868v1.pdf 2
- Front Cover 2
- INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL & BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 5
- Copyright 6
- EDITORIAL BOARD 7
- EDITOR IN CHIEF BIOGRAPHY 13
- PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 15
- INTRODUCTION 19
  - The Planning Phase and Editorial Structure 22
  - Recruiting Editors and Authors 24
  - Biographies∗∗My thanks to Andreas Hess for drafting this section of the Introduction. 25
  - Redundancy 27
  - The Review Process 28
  - Internationalism and Inclusivity 28
  - Concluding Observations 29

e9780080970868v1.pdf 2
- Front Cover 2
- INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL & BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 5
- Copyright 6
- EDITORIAL BOARD 7
- EDITOR IN CHIEF BIOGRAPHY 13
- PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 15
- INTRODUCTION 19
  - The Planning Phase and Editorial Structure 22
  - Recruiting Editors and Authors 24
  - Biographies∗∗My thanks to Andreas Hess for drafting this section of the Introduction. 25
  - Redundancy 27
  - The Review Process 28
  - Internationalism and Inclusivity 28
  - Concluding Observations 29
  - Bibliography 30
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 31
- GUIDE TO USING THE ENCYCLOPEDIA 35
  - 1. Alphabetical Contents List 35
  - 4. Contributors 35
  - 2. Cross-references 35
  - 5. Index 35
  - Structure of the Encyclopedia 35
  - 3. Subject Classification Index 35
- CONTENTS TO VOLUME 1 37
- CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 47
- Abortion, Demography of: United States 55
  - Introduction 55
  - Data Sources 55
  - Abortion Incidence and Abortion Rates by Subgroup 56
  - Lifetime Incidence of Abortion 58
  - A Note About (Potential) Change 58
  - Bibliography 59
  - Conclusion 59
- Absolutism, History of 60
  - Absolutism and Its Historiography 60
  - Absolutism in Practice and Theory 61
  - Absolutism: Terminology and Typology 63
  - Conclusion 64
  - Bibliography 65
- Absorptive Capacity (of Organizations) 66
  - Introduction 66
  - Absorptive Capacity 66
  - Recent Developments in Absorptive Capacity Research 68
  - Integrating Dynamic Capabilities into the Conceptualization of Absorptive Capacity 71
  - Implications and Outlook 71
  - Bibliography 73
- Academic Achievement Motivation, Development of 74
  - Can I Succeed? 74
  - The Development of Competence-related/Efficacy Beliefs 75
  - Theories Concerned With the Question ‘Do I Want to Do This Task?’ 76
  - Why Am I Doing This? 77
  - The Development of Motivational Problems 77
  - Summary 78
  - Bibliography 79
- Academic Careers in Comparative Perspective 80
  - Academic Training 80
  - Employment Contracts 81
  - The Case for and against Tenure 82
    - Academic Freedom Perspective 82
    - Economics of Tenure Perspective 83
  - Hierarchies 82
  - Current Reforms and Policy Debates 83
  - Bibliography 84
- Academic Engagement 85
  - Measurement of Engagement 85
  - Engagement 85
  - What Is Engagement? 85
  - Theoretical Frameworks – Motivational and Developmental Literature 86
  - Why Does Engagement Matter? 86
  - Theoretical Frameworks – Dropout Literature 86
  - Engagement as a Multidimensional Construct 87
  - Classroom Context and Engagement 87
  - Family Context and Engagement 87
  - Reciprocal Relations 88
  - Person-Centered Approaches 88
  - Trajectories of Engagement 88
  - Conclusion and Future Directions 88
  - Bibliography 89
- Academic Motivation and Performance: Task Value Interventions 91
  - Expectancy-Value Model 91
    - Interest Theory 92
    - Utility Value Interventions 92
  - Parents: An Untapped Resource 94
  - Conclusion 95
  - Bibliography 95
- Academic Performance, Effects of Socio-Economic Status on 97
  - Introduction 97
  - Socioeconomic Segregation 99
  - Disparate Funding 100
  - Intervention 100
  - Bibliography 101
- Academic Research and Employment: Recent Changes in Europe and the United States 103
  - The Increase and Impact of External Research Funding on Academic Work 103
  - The Postdoctoral Experience: ‘Project Workers’ in the US and Europe 104
  - Further Effects of Project-Based, External Funding in Academe 104
  - Summary and Outlook 105
  - Network Governance – Conceptualizing Project Work 105
  - Bibliography 106
  - See also 106
- Academic Self-Concept and Achievement 108
  - Hierarchical Multidimensional Structure 108
  - Causal Ordering of Academic Self-Concept and Achievement 110
  - Frame of Reference: The Internal/External Model 111
  - Frame of Reference: The Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect 113
  - Summary and Conclusion 115
  - Bibliography 115
- Access: Geographical 118
  - Definition and Meaning 118
  - The Measurement of Access 119
  - Bibliography 121
- Acculturation 122
  - Some Central Issues to the Concept 122
  - Framework and Theoretical Perspectives 123
  - The ABCs of Acculturation 124
  - Acculturation Processes: How Do Individuals Acculturate? 125
  - Acculturation Outcomes: How Well Do People Acculturate? 126
  - Conclusions 127
  - Bibliography 127
  - Relationship between How People Acculturate and How Well They Adapt 127
- Action, Theories of Social 129
  - Theories of Social Action and Their Role in Sociology 129
  - Traditional Views on Social Action 130
  - Strategies and Perspectives 131
  - Bibliography 133
- Actor-Network Theory 134
  - Intellectual Foundations and Historical Origins 134
  - Central Problems 136
  - Philosophical Developments 137
  - Bibliography 138
- Adaptation, Fitness, and Evolution 139
  - Introduction 139
  - Adaptations Identity and Its Distinction from Fitness 139
  - The Roles of Adaptation and of Fitness in Darwin's Argument for Natural Selection 140
  - Alternatives to Adaptation in Evolution 141
  - Misdefinitions of Adaptation or Misconceptions of Its Role 142
  - Adaptationism and Its Drawbacks 142
  - The Future Study of Adaptation 143
  - Bibliography 143
- Addams, Jane (1860–1935) 145
  - Biography 145
  - Her Intellectual Development 146
    - The Early Years 146
    - Hull House Maps and Papers 146
    - Jane Addams's Epistemology 147
  - Jane Addams and the Social Sciences 148
    - Jane Addams and Anthropology 148
    - Jane Addams and Sociology 148
    - Jane Addams and Political Science 149
    - Addams and Social Work 149
  - Conclusion 149
  - Bibliography 150
- Addictions: General Considerations 151
  - Background 151
  - What Is addiction? 151
  - Public Health 154
  - Conclusion 155
  - Bibliography 155
- Administration in Organizations 157
  - From Principles to Concepts 157
  - Managing Arenas for Strategic Behavior 158
  - Administration as Moral Community Building 160
  - Action-Oriented Cognition Building 160
  - When Societal Dynamics Impose Administration Regimes 161
  - Bibliography 162
- Administrative Law: The United States and Beyond 163
  - Administrative Law and Democracy 163
  - Courts and Judicial Review 165
  - Legislative and Executive Oversight 166
  - Administrative Law and Governance 167
  - Bibliography 167
  - Relevant Websites 168
- Adolescence, Sociology of 169
  - Adolescence as a Life Stage 169
  - Introduction 169
  - Social Institutions and Contexts Shaping Adolescent Development 170
  - Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Endeavors 173
  - Adolescents as Actors 173
  - Relevant Websites 174
  - Bibliography 174
- Adolescent Health and Health Behaviors 175
  - Intellectual Context 175
  - Dominant Theories and Changes in Emphasis over Time 175
  - Definition of Adolescent Health Behavior 175
  - Emphases in Current Research 176
  - Future Directions 179
  - Bibliography 180
- Adolescent Sexual Risk 182
  - Introduction 182
  - Background 182
  - Psychological and Biological Factors 183
  - Social Context: Network Factors 184
  - Rewards and Sanctions 184
  - Social Support 185
  - Ecological Factors 186
  - Opportunities 186
  - Conclusion 187
  - Bibliography 188
- Adoption, Demography of 190
  - Definitions of Adoption 190
    - Domestic/International 190
    - Plenary/Simple 190
    - Public/Private 190
    - Formal/Informal 190
    - Irregular Adoptions 191
    - Kin/Strangers 191
    - Race and Adoption 191
  - Demography of Adoption 191
    - Data and Collection Issues 191
    - Standardizing Measures 192
  - Causes of/Justifications for Adoption 192
    - Infertility 192
    - Changing Sources of Adoptable Children 192
  - Adoption and Cultural Transformation 193
  - Bibliography 194
  - Relevant Websites 195
- Adoption: Domestic, International and Global Perspectives 196
  - Introduction 196
  - The Social Construction of Adoption – A ‘Legal Fiction’ 196
  - The Evolution of Adoption 197
  - Domestic Adoption Today 198
  - From Secrecy to Openness in Adoption 198
  - Intercountry Adoption – The Globalization of Adoption 199
  - Bibliography 200
  - Race, Ethnicity, Identity, and Belonging: Contemporary Issues in Adoption 200
  - Conclusion 200
- Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: The US Experience and Beyond 202
  - Emergent Population of Adult Learners 202
  - Lifelong Learning and Andragogy: Recognizing the Context of Adult Learners 202
  - Lifelong Educational and Learning Benefits and Opportunities 203
  - Future Directions 204
  - Bibliography 205
- Adult Mortality in Developing Countries 207
  - Introduction 207
  - Data Sources and Estimates 207
  - Levels and Trends of Adult Mortality in the Developing World, 1950–2010 211
  - Challenges Ahead 213
  - Bibliography 213
  - Relevant Websites 214
- Adult Mortality in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Republics 215
  - Health Crisis in Central and Eastern Europe: The Major Role of Adult Mortality 215
  - Fluctuations and Mortality at Working Ages in the Former USSR 217
  - An Excess Mortality Shifting to Older Ages 221
  - Bibliography 223
- Adult Mortality in Industrialized Societies 224
  - Introduction 224
  - Current Levels of Adult Mortality 225
  - Country-Specific Trends in Adult Mortality 227
  - Contribution of the Major Causes of Death to Changes in Adult Mortality 229
  - Trends in the Age Pattern of Adult Mortality 229
  - Trends and Patterns of Sex Differences in Adult Mortality 232
  - Driving Factors of Past Trends in Adult Mortality and Expectations for the Future 233
  - Bibliography 234
- Adulthood: Dependency and Autonomy 235
  - On the Complexities of Dependency and Autonomy in Adult Life 235
  - Dependency and Autonomy – A Challenge in Midlife? 236
  - On the Many Faces of Dependency and Autonomy in Old Age 236
  - Conclusions and New Research Directions 237
  - Bibliography 238
- Adverbial Clauses 239
  - The Structure and Distribution of Adverbial Clauses 239
    - The Structure of Adverbial Clauses 239
    - The Distribution of Adverbial Coordinators 240
    - The Ordering of Adverbial Clauses and Main Clauses 240
  - Semantic Types of Adverbial Clause 240
  - Functions of Adverbial Clauses in Discourse 241
    - Speech Act Adverbial Clauses 241
    - The Functions of Adverbial Clauses beyond Sentence 241
  - The Interpretation of Adverbial Clauses 241
  - Bibliography 242
- Advertising Agencies 243
  - Origins and Early Developments 243
  - Full Service Agencies 244
  - Agency Organization 245
  - Agency Compensation 245
  - The Account System 246
  - Editor’s Note 247
  - Bibliography 247
- Advertising and Advertisements 248
  - Definition 248
  - Function 248
  - Form 249
  - How Advertisements Work 252
  - Conclusion 253
  - Editor’s Note 253
  - Bibliography 253
- Advertising, Control of 255
  - Advertising Failures 255
  - Forms of Advertising Control 256
  - Ongoing Developments 258
  - Bibliography 261
- Advertising: Effects 262
  - Economic Effects 262
  - Introduction 262
  - Context 262
  - Sociocultural Effects 263
  - Individual Effects 264
  - Special Audiences 265
  - Going Forward 265
  - Bibliography 266
- Advertising: General 267
  - Advertising as a Cultural Industry 267
  - The Development of Advertising 268
  - The Critique of Advertising 269
  - Advertising in Social Theory 270

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