Energy Efficiency

Description

Energy Efficiency: Concepts and Calculations is the first book of its kind to provide an applied, systems oriented description of energy intensity and efficiency in modern economies across the entire energy chain. With an emphasis on analysis, specifically energy flow analysis, lifecycle energy accounting, economic analysis, technology evaluation, and policies/strategies for adopting high energy efficiency standards, the book provides a comprehensive understanding of the concepts, tools and methodologies for studying and modeling macro-level energy flows through, and within, key economic sectors (electric power, industrial, commercial, residential and transportation).

Providing a technical discussion of the application of common methodologies (e.g. cost-benefit analysis and lifecycle assessment), each chapter contains figures, charts and examples from each sector, including the policies that have been put in place to promote and incentivize the adoption of energy efficient technologies.

Contains models and tools to analyze each stage at the macro-level by tracking energy consumption and how the resulting data might change energy use
Includes accessible references and a glossary of common terms at the end of each chapter
Provides diagnostic figures, tables and schematics within the context of local, regional and national energy consumption and utilization

Front Cover 2
Energy Efficiency 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
Preface 13
1 Introductory concepts 15
- 1.1 Defining Energy Efficiency 16
  - 1.1.1 Energy Efficiency Versus Conservation 16
- 1.2 Impetus for Understanding and Employing Energy Efficiency 18
  - 1.2.1 Social Factors 18
  - 1.2.2 Macroeconomic Factors 20
    - 1.2.2.1 Energy intensity 20
  - 1.2.3 Other Kinds of Efficiency 22
- 1.3 Energy Sources and Energy Carriers 23
  - 1.3.1 Primary Energy 24

Front Cover 2
Energy Efficiency 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
Preface 13
1 Introductory concepts 15
- 1.1 Defining Energy Efficiency 16
  - 1.1.1 Energy Efficiency Versus Conservation 16
- 1.2 Impetus for Understanding and Employing Energy Efficiency 18
  - 1.2.1 Social Factors 18
  - 1.2.2 Macroeconomic Factors 20
    - 1.2.2.1 Energy intensity 20
  - 1.2.3 Other Kinds of Efficiency 22
- 1.3 Energy Sources and Energy Carriers 23
  - 1.3.1 Primary Energy 24
  - 1.3.2 Secondary Energy 26
- 1.4 The Energy Supply/Demand Chain 26
  - 1.4.1 Supply Acquisition 26
    - 1.4.1.1 Oil and gas exploration and production 26
    - 1.4.1.4 Wind speed analysis and measurement 27
    - 1.4.1.2 Exploration for and evaluation of uranium deposits 27
    - 1.4.1.5 Solar insolation mapping 27
    - 1.4.1.3 Coal bed exploration and mapping 27
    - 1.4.1.6 Mapping river flows 27
    - 1.4.1.7 Geothermal energy identification 28
  - 1.4.2 Energy Extraction 28
    - 1.4.2.1 Oil and gas production 28
    - 1.4.2.2 Coal mining 28
    - 1.4.2.3 Wind and water turbines 28
    - 1.4.2.4 Harvesting raw biomass 29
    - 1.4.2.7 Geothermal production 30
    - 1.4.2.5 Solar power production 30
    - 1.4.2.6 Nuclear power 30
  - 1.4.3 Energy Conversion 31
    - 1.4.3.1 Thermomechanical conversion for electricity generation 31
    - 1.4.3.4 Chemical conversion of agricultural crops into fuel alcohol or biodiesel 32
    - 1.4.3.2 Electromechanical energy conversion for electricity generation 32
    - 1.4.3.3 Refining oil into energy (and nonenergy) products 32
  - 1.4.4 Energy Processing 33
    - 1.4.4.2 Batteries 33
    - 1.4.4.3 Hydrogen 33
    - 1.4.4.1 Electricity 33
    - 1.4.4.4 Gasoline 34
    - 1.4.4.7 Wood fuel (chips, pellets, and/or sawdust) 34
    - 1.4.4.5 Diesel and heating oil 34
    - 1.4.4.6 Jet fuel 34
    - 1.4.4.8 Charcoal 35
    - 1.4.4.9 Engineered biofuels 35
  - 1.4.5 Energy Distribution/Transport 36
    - 1.4.5.2 The electric power grid 36
    - 1.4.5.1 Natural gas pipelines 36
    - 1.4.5.3 Hauling coal by rail or barge 37
    - 1.4.5.4 Trucking fuel to service station or homes 37
  - 1.4.6 Energy End-Use and Utilization 37
    - 1.4.6.3 Powering electronics 38
    - 1.4.6.1 End use 38
    - 1.4.6.2 Burning fuels for space or process heat 38
    - 1.4.6.5 Powering an engine 39
    - 1.4.6.4 Converting electricity into light or heat 39
  - 1.5 Efficiency Calculation: Assessing Cumulative or Total System Efficiency 39
    - 1.5.1 System Efficiency of Illumination Via Incandescent Lighting From Coal-Fired Electricity 40
    - 1.5.2 System Efficiency of Illumination Via Light Emitting Diode Lighting From Coal-Fired Electricity 41
    - 1.5.3 System Efficiency of Illumination Via Light Emitting Diode Lighting From Natural Gas-Fired Electricity 42
    - 1.5.4 System Efficiency of Illumination Via Light Emitting Diode Lighting From Solar PV Technology 43
    - 1.5.5 Final Thoughts on Cumulative Efficiencies 45
  - 1.6 Sources of Energy Efficiency Information 46
  - References and Further Reading 47
- 2 Dealing with energy units, measures, and statistics 49
  - 2.1 The Reason for So Many Units 50
  - 2.2 Systems of Measurement, Common Units, and Prefixes of Energy 51
    - 2.2.1 The Joule 51
    - 2.2.3 The British Thermal Unit 52
    - 2.2.2 The Calorie 52
    - 2.2.5 The Quad 53
    - 2.2.4 The Therm 53
    - 2.2.6 The Barrel of Oil Equivalent 54
    - 2.2.7 The Tonne of Oil Equivalent 55
    - 2.2.8 Masses of Coal Equivalent 57
    - 2.2.9 Energy Content or Heating Value of End-Use Fuels 57
    - 2.2.10 The Watt-Hour, Kilowatt-Hour, and the Terawatt-Hour 59
    - 2.2.11 Visualizing Energy Units and Their Equivalencies 60
  - 2.3 Power and Its Equivalencies 61
    - 2.3.1 Load and Capacity 63
      - 2.3.1.1 Building loads and equipment capacities 64
      - 2.3.1.2 Electricity generation and capacity 65
      - 2.3.1.3 Large-scale energy consumption and loads 66
    - 2.3.2 Flux 68
      - 2.3.2.1 Light and illuminance 68
      - 2.3.2.2 Solar flux 69
    - 2.3.3 Horsepower 70
  - 2.4 Production and Consumption Definitions and Statistics 70
    - 2.4.1 Resources and Reserves 71
    - 2.4.2 Total Primary Energy Supply and Total Final Consumption 75
    - 2.4.3 Energy Intensity 76
    - 2.4.4 Per Capita Energy Consumption 76
  - 2.5 Definitions and Representations of Energy Efficiency 77
  - References and Further Reading 79
- 3 Primary energy trends 81
  - 3.1 Conceptualizing Primary Energy Supply 81
  - 3.2 Conceptualizing Primary Energy Flows to End Use 84
  - 3.3 Oil and Gas Supply and Production 90
  - 3.4 Coal Supply and Production 94
  - 3.5 Uranium Supply and Production 97
  - 3.6 Hydropower Supply and Production 100
  - 3.7 Wind Supply and Production 101
  - 3.8 Solar Supply and Production 102
  - 3.9 Biomass Supply and Production 105
  - 3.10 Geothermal Supply and Production 107
  - 3.11 Future Energy Supply and Production 109
  - References and Further Reading 112
- 4 Energy–flow analyses and efficiency indicators 115
  - 4.1 Energy-Conversion Devices 115
    - 4.1.1 First Law 116
    - 4.1.2 Second Law 116
    - 4.1.3 Common Energy-Conversion Device Efficiencies 117
    - 4.1.4 Overall System Efficiency and Limiting Steps 118
  - 4.2 Macroscale Energy Systems and Efficiency 119
  - 4.3 Energy Flows and Efficiencies of Economic Sectors 121
    - 4.3.1 Source/Sector Linkages: Primary Energy Consumption 121
    - 4.3.2 Delivered Total Energy by Sector 123
    - 4.3.3 Total Energy-Flow Approach 125
    - 4.3.4 Sector Energy Flows and Simple Efficiency Analysis Using the Sankey Approach 126
      - 4.3.4.1 Electricity sector energy-flow analysis 127
      - 4.3.4.2 Transportation sector energy-flow analysis 129
      - 4.3.4.3 Industrial sector energy-flow analysis 131
      - 4.3.4.4 Residential sector energy-flow analysis 133
      - 4.3.4.5 Commercial sector energy-flow analysis 135
      - 4.3.4.6 Side-by-side sector comparisons 137
    - 4.4 Summary 139
    - References and Further Reading 140
  - 5 Electric power sector energy efficiency 143
    - 5.1 Global Electricity Consumption: Basic Statistics 143
    - 5.2 Overview of the Sector 146
    - 5.3 Electricity Demand 147
      - 5.3.1 Peak Demand and Load Duration Curves 147
      - 5.3.2 Demand Versus Consumption 151
    - 5.4 Electricity Generator Types 153
      - 5.4.1 Thermal Power Plants 153
        
        5.4.1.1 Coal-fired power plants 154
        
        5.4.1.1.1 CFPP efficiency constraints 156
        
        5.4.1.2 Natural gas power plants and operation 156
        
        5.4.1.2.1 Natural gas efficiency constraints 158
        
        5.4.1.3 Nuclear power plants 159
        
        5.4.1.4 Concentrating solar power plants 159
      - 5.4.2 Water Turbine Power Plants 160
      - 5.4.3 Wind Turbine Power Plants 161
      - 5.4.4 Grid-Tied Solar PV Power Plants 162
      - 5.4.5 Geothermal Power Plants 163
    - 5.5 Electricity Transmission and Distribution 164
    - 5.6 Illustrated Calculations of Energy Flow Through Various Electric Power Generating Systems 166
      - 5.6.1 Coal-Fired Power Generation 167
      - 5.6.2 Natural Gas Turbine Generators 167
      - 5.6.3 Solar PV Power Generation 169
    - 5.7 Conclusion 171
    - References and Further Reading 172
  - 6 Industrial sector energy efficiency 175
    - 6.1 Industrial Sector Overview 176
    - 6.2 Energy-Intensive Manufacturing Subsectors 178
      - 6.2.1 Petroleum Refining 179
      - 6.2.2 Basic Chemicals 181
      - 6.2.3 The Iron and Steel Subsector 185
      - 6.2.4 The Aluminum Subsector 187
      - 6.2.5 The Cement Subsector 189
      - 6.2.6 Pulp and Paper 191
      - 6.2.7 Food and Beverage 193
    - 6.3 Nonenergy-Intensive Manufacturing Subsectors 196
    - 6.4 Nonmanufacturing Subsectors 197
    - 6.5 Technology Implementation and Energy Savings Across Subsectors 198
    - 6.6 Calculation: Energy Auditing and Estimating Payback for Energy Efficient Technology Adoption Decisions in the Industria... 200
      - 6.6.1 Energy Efficiency Information Programs and the Energy Audit 200
      - 6.6.2 Energy Efficiency Payback Period 202
      - 6.6.3 Case Study: Texas Tile Manufacturing LLC 204
    - References and Further Reading 206
      - Books and Technical Articles/Reports 206
      - Energy Information Sources and Technical Reports 206
      - Other Online Resources 209
    - 7 Transportation sector energy efficiency 211
      - 7.1 Transportation Sector Overview 211
      - 7.2 Modes of Transport in the Sector 216
        
        7.2.1 Motor Vehicles and Automotive Transportation 216
        
        7.2.2 Air Transport 223
        
        7.2.3 Passenger and Freight Energy Intensities by Mode 224
      - 7.3 Energy Efficiency Potential in Motor Vehicles 225
      - 7.4 Driving More Efficiently 230
        
        7.4.1 Tips for Hybrid Gasoline/Electric Vehicles and Electric Vehicles 234
      - 7.5 Calculation: Fuel Economy and Per Passenger Efficiency 235
      - References and Further Reading 237
    - 8 Residential and commercial sector energy efficiency 241
      - 8.1 Residential and Commercial Sector Overview 241
      - 8.2 End-Use Energy Consumption in Residential and Commercial Buildings 248
        
        8.2.1 Space Heating and Cooling 248
        
        8.2.1.1 Space heating 249
        
        8.2.1.2 Space cooling 253
        
        8.2.1.3 Building thermal performance 257
        
        8.2.1.4 Recent trends in heating and cooling: heat pumps and insulation 259
        
        8.2.2 Water Heating 262
        
        8.2.3 Appliances 266
        
        8.2.4 Lighting 268
        
        8.2.5 Electronic Devices 274
      - 8.3 Residential and Commercial Energy Audits 275
      - 8.4 Calculation: Heat Loss Through the Building Shell With and Without Insulation 277
      - References and Further Reading 279
        
        Books and Technical Articles/Reports 279
        
        Energy Information Sources and Technical Reports 280
        
        Other Resources 282
      - 9 Policy instruments to foster energy efficiency 285
        
        9.1 Overview 286
        
        9.2 Policy Approaches to Foster Energy Efficiency 289
        
        9.3 Command-and-Control Policy Instruments 291
        
        9.3.2 Building Codes 294
        
        9.3.1 Mandated Minimum Efficiency Standards 294
        
        9.3.3 Mandated Labeling and Information Disclosure 295
        
        9.4 Market-Based Policy Instruments 295
        
        9.4.1 Taxes, Tax Credits, and Tax Deductions 296
        
        9.4.2 Rebates, Subsidies, and Grants 297
        
        9.4.4 Tradable Allowances 298
        
        9.4.3 Time of Use Pricing 298
        
        9.5 Voluntary Policy Instruments 299
        
        9.5.1 Education 300
        
        9.5.4 Technical Support 300
        
        9.5.2 Default Choice Architecture 300
        
        9.5.3 Voluntary Consumer Labeling 300
        
        9.5.5 Industry Challenges and Voluntary Agreements 301
        
        9.6 Policy Instruments for the Transportation Sector 301
        
        9.6.1 Fuel-Efficiency Standards for Motor Vehicles 302
        
        9.6.2 Fuel-Efficiency Standards for Aircraft 303
        
        9.6.3 Motor Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Labeling 304
        
        9.6.4 Highway Speed Limits 304
        
        9.6.5 Low-Efficiency Motor Vehicle Tax 304
        
        9.6.6 Retiring Inefficient Motor Vehicles 305
        
        9.6.7 Transportation Planning 306
        
        9.7 Policies for the Energy Production Sector 307
        
        9.7.1 Smart Grid Development 308
        
        9.7.2 Carbon Tax 308
        
        9.7.3 Carbon Emissions Trading 309
        
        9.7.4 Combined Heat and Power Partnership 309
        
        9.8 Policies for the Commercial and Residential Sectors 310
        
        9.8.1 Minimum Efficiency Standards—Appliances 311
        
        9.8.2 Lighting Efficiency Standards 311
        
        9.8.3 Mandatory Energy Labeling 312
        
        9.8.6 Residential Energy Credits 313
        
        9.8.4 Corporate Energy Assessments 313
        
        9.8.5 Efficient Appliances—Consumer Incentives 313
        
        9.8.9 Voluntary Energy Labeling 314
        
        9.8.7 Energy-Efficiency Grants 314
        
        9.8.8 Weatherization Assistance 314
        
        9.8.10 Efficient Lighting Challenge 315
        
        9.8.11 Better Buildings Challenge 315
        
        9.8.12 Third-Party Certification Programs 316
        
        9.8.13 Technical Assistance 317
        
        9.9 Conclusion 317
        
        References and Further Reading 318
      - Index 321
      - Back Cover 329

Author's affiliation

Daniel M. Martinez: University of Southern Maine, Portland, Maine, USA
Ben W. Ebenhack: Marietta College, Marietta, Ohio, USA
Travis P. Wagner: Professor, Department of Environmental Science and Policy, Universtiy of Southern Maine, USA

Concepts and Calculations

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