Physics and Engineering of Radiation Detection

Description

Physics and Engineering of Radiation Detection presents an overview of the physics of radiation detection and its applications. It covers the origins and properties of different kinds of ionizing radiation, their detection and measurement, and the procedures used to protect people and the environment from their potentially harmful effects.

The second edition is fully revised and provides the latest developments in detector technology and analyses software. Also, more material related to measurements in particle physics and a complete solutions manual have been added.

Discusses the experimental techniques and instrumentation used in different detection systems in a very practical way without sacrificing the physics content
Provides useful formulae and explains methodologies to solve problems related to radiation measurements
Contains many worked-out examples and end-of-chapter problems
Detailed discussions on different detection media, such as gases, liquids, liquefied gases, semiconductors, and scintillators
Chapters on statistics, data analysis techniques, software for data analysis, and data acquisition systems

Front Cover 2
Physics and Engineering of Radiation Detection 5
Copyright Page 6
Dedication 7
Contents 9
Preface to the second edition 17
Preface to the first edition 19
1 Properties and sources of radiation 23
- 1.1 Types of radiation 23
- 1.2 Waves or particles? 24
- 1.3 Radioactivity and radioactive decay 26
  - 1.3.A Decay energy or Q-value 31
  - 1.3.B The decay equation 34
  - 1.3.C Composite radionuclides 39
  - 1.3.D Radioactive chain 42

Front Cover 2
Physics and Engineering of Radiation Detection 5
Copyright Page 6
Dedication 7
Contents 9
Preface to the second edition 17
Preface to the first edition 19
1 Properties and sources of radiation 23
- 1.1 Types of radiation 23
- 1.2 Waves or particles? 24
- 1.3 Radioactivity and radioactive decay 26
  - 1.3.A Decay energy or Q-value 31
  - 1.3.B The decay equation 34
  - 1.3.C Composite radionuclides 39
  - 1.3.D Radioactive chain 42
  - 1.3.E Decay equilibrium 46
    - E.1 Secular equilibrium 47
    - E.2 Transient equilibrium 49
    - E.3 No equilibrium 49
  - 1.3.F Branching ratio 50
  - 1.3.G Units of radioactivity 51
- 1.4 Activation 51
- 1.5 Sources of radiation 52
  - 1.5.A Natural sources 53
    - A.1 Cosmic radiation sources 53
    - A.2 Terrestrial radiation sources 54
    - A.3 Internal radiation sources 54
  - 1.5.B Man-made sources 54
- 1.6 General properties and sources of particles and waves 56
  - 1.6.A Photons 56
    - A.1 Sources of photons 58
      - X-ray machine 58
      - Laser 61
        
        Gas lasers 62
        
        Solid-state lasers 63
        
        New developments 63
        
        Liquid lasers 63
      - Synchrotron radiation 61
      - Radioactive sources of photons 64
    - 1.6.B Electrons 66
      - B.1 Sources of electrons 67
        
        Electron gun 67
        
        Radioactive sources of electrons 69
      - 1.6.C Positrons 70
        
        C.1 Sources of positrons 70
        
        Particle accelerators 70
        
        Radioactive sources of positrons 71
        
        1.6.D Protons 71
        
        D.1 Sources of protons 72
        
        Particle accelerators 72
        
        Laser ion accelerators 72
        
        Radioactive sources of protons 73
        
        1.6.E Neutrons 73
        
        E.1 Sources of neutrons 74
        
        Spallation sources 74
        
        Composite sources 75
        
        Nuclear reactors 76
        
        Radioactive sources of neutrons 76
        
        Fusion sources 76
        
        1.6.F Alpha particles 77
        
        F.1 Sources of α-particles 78
        
        Accelerator-based sources 78
        
        Radioactive sources of α-particles 79
        
        1.6.G Fission fragments 79
        
        1.6.H Muons, neutrinos, and other particles 80
        
        H.1 Muons 80
        
        H.2 Neutrinos 81
        
        H.3 Some other particles 82
        
        Problems 82
        
        Bibliography 83
        
        2 Interaction of radiation with matter 87
        
        2.1 Some basic concepts and terminologies 87
        
        2.1.A Inverse square law 88
        
        2.1.B Cross section 89
        
        2.1.C Mean free path 91
        
        2.1.D Radiation length 93
        
        2.1.E Conservation laws 98
        
        E.1 Conservation of energy 98
        
        E.3 Conservation of electrical charge 99
        
        E.2 Conservation of momentum 99
        
        2.2 Types of particle interactions 100
        
        2.2.A Elastic scattering 100
        
        2.2.B Inelastic scattering 101
        
        2.2.C Annihilation 101
        
        2.2.D Bremsstrahlung 103
        
        2.2.E Cherenkov radiation 105
        
        2.3 Interaction of photons with matter 107
        
        2.3.A Interaction mechanisms 107
        
        A.1 Photoelectric effect 107
        
        A.2 Compton scattering 112
        
        A.5 Pair production 120
        
        A.3 Thompson scattering 120
        
        A.4 Rayleigh scattering 120
        
        2.3.B Passage of photons through matter 124
        
        B.1 Measuring attenuation coefficient 128
        
        B.2 Mixtures and compounds 129
        
        B.3 Stacked materials 131
        
        2.4 Interaction of heavy charged particles with matter 133
        
        2.4.A Rutherford scattering 133
        
        2.4.B Passage of charged particles through matter 138
        
        2.4.C Bragg curve 145
        
        2.4.D Energy straggling 146
        
        2.4.E Range and range straggling 148
        
        E.1 Range of α-particles 148
        
        E.2 Range of protons 150
        
        2.5 Interaction of electrons with matter 151
        
        2.5.A Interaction modes 152
        
        A.1 Ionization 152
        
        A.2 Møller scattering 153
        
        A.3 Bhabha scattering 153
        
        A.4 Electron–positron annihilation 153
        
        A.5 Bremsstrahlung 154
        
        A.6 Cherenkov radiation 155
        
        2.5.B Passage of electrons through matter 157
        
        2.5.C Energy straggling 161
        
        2.5.D Range of electrons 163
        
        2.6 Interaction of neutral particles with matter 168
        
        2.6.A Neutrons 168
        
        A.2 Inelastic scattering 168
        
        A.1 Elastic scattering 168
        
        A.4 Radiative capture 169
        
        A.3 Transmutation 169
        
        A.7 Total cross section 170
        
        A.5 Spallation 170
        
        A.6 Fission 170
        
        A.8 Passage of neutrons through matter 171
        
        Problems 173
        
        Bibliography 175
        
        3 Gas-filled detectors 179
        
        3.1 Production of electron–ion pairs 179
        
        3.2 Diffusion and drift of charges in gases 182
        
        3.2.A Diffusion in the absence of electric field 182
        
        A.1 Diffusion in the presence of electric field 183
        
        3.2.B Drift of charges in electric field 184
        
        B.1 Drift of ions 184
        
        B.2 Drift of electrons 185
        
        3.2.C Effects of impurities on charge transport 188
        
        3.3 Regions of operation of gas-filled detectors 191
        
        3.3.A Recombination region 191
        
        3.3.B Ion chamber region 192
        
        3.3.C Proportional region 193
        
        C.1 Avalanche multiplication 193
        
        3.3.E Geiger–Mueller region 196
        
        E.1 Breakdown 197
        
        3.3.D Region of limited proportionality 196
        
        3.3.F Continuous discharge 200
        
        3.4 Ionization chambers 201
        
        3.4.B Mechanical design 201
        
        B.1 Parallel plate geometry 202
        
        B.2 Cylindrical geometry 205
        
        3.4.A Current–voltage characteristics 201
        
        3.4.C Choice of gas 209
        
        3.4.D Special types of ion chambers 209
        
        D.1 Parallel plate Frisch grid chamber 209
        
        D.2 Boron-lined ion chamber 211
        
        D.3 Compensated ion chamber 212
        
        3.4.E Applications of ion chambers 212
        
        3.4.F Advantages and disadvantages of ion chambers 213
        
        3.5 Proportional counters 214
        
        3.5.A Multiplication factor 216
        
        3.5.B Choice of gas 220
        
        B.1 Threshold for avalanche multiplication 220
        
        B.2 Quenching 221
        
        B.3 Gas gain 223
        
        3.5.C Special types of proportional counters 223
        
        C.1 BF3 proportional counter 223
        
        C.2 Helium proportional counters 224
        
        C.3 Multi-wire proportional counters 225
        
        3.6 Geiger–Mueller counters 225
        
        3.6.A Current–voltage characteristics 226
        
        3.6.B Dead time 226
        
        3.6.C Choice of gas 229
        
        3.6.D Quenching 230
        
        D.1 Internal quenching 230
        
        D.2 External quenching 231
        
        3.6.E Advantages and disadvantages of GM counters 231
        
        3.7 Sources of error in gaseous detectors 231
        
        3.7.A Recombination losses 231
        
        3.7.B Effects of contaminants 233
        
        B.2 Dissociative capture 235
        
        B.1 Radiative capture 235
        
        B.3 Capture without dissociation 236
        
        3.7.C Effects of space charge buildup 236
        
        3.8 Detector efficiency 241
        
        3.8.A Signal-to-noise ratio 247
        
        Problems 250
        
        Bibliography 251
        
        4 Liquid-filled detectors 255
        
        4.1 Properties of liquids 255
        
        4.1.A Charge pair generation and recombination 255
        
        4.1.B Drift of charges 260
        
        B.1 Drift of electrons 260
        
        B.2 Drift of ions 262
        
        4.2 Liquid ionization chamber 262
        
        4.2.A Applications of liquid-filled ion chambers 264
        
        4.3 Liquid proportional counters 264
        
        4.3.A Charge multiplication 264
        
        4.4 Commonly used liquid detection media 267
        
        4.5 Sources of error in liquid-filled ionizing detectors 268
        
        4.5.A Recombination 268
        
        4.5.B Parasitic electron capture and trapping 270
        
        4.6 Cherenkov detectors 275
        
        4.7 Bubble chamber 277
        
        Problems 278
        
        4.8 Liquid scintillator detectors 278
        
        Bibliography 279
        
        5 Solid-state detectors 281
        
        5.1 Semiconductor detectors 281
        
        5.1.A Structure of semiconductors 281
        
        5.1.B Charge carrier distribution 283
        
        5.1.C Intrinsic, compensated, and extrinsic semiconductors 284
        
        5.1.D Doping 284
        
        D.1 Doping with acceptor impurity 286
        
        D.2 Doping with donor impurity 287
        
        5.1.E Mechanism and statistics of electron–hole pair production 288
        
        E.1 Intrinsic energy resolution 292
        
        E.2 Recombination 294
        
        5.1.F Charge conductivity 297
        
        F.1 Drift of electrons and holes 297
        
        5.1.G Materials suitable for radiation detection 299
        
        G.1 Silicon 300
        
        G.2 Germanium 307
        
        G.3 Gallium arsenide 312
        
        G.4 Cadmium–zinc–tellurium 315
        
        5.1.H The pn-Junction 316
        
        H.1 Characteristics of a reverse-biased pn-Diode 318
        
        H.2 Signal generation 324
        
        H.3 Frequency response 328
        
        5.1.I Modes of operation of a pn-Diode 328
        
        I.1 Photovoltaic mode 329
        
        I.2 Photoconductive mode 329
        
        5.1.J Desirable properties 330
        
        J.2 Low radiation fields 332
        
        J.1 High radiation fields 332
        
        5.1.K Specific semiconductor detectors 332
        
        K.1 PIN diode 332
        
        K.2 Schottky diode 334
        
        K.5 Surface barrier detector 335
        
        K.3 Heterojunction diode 335
        
        K.6 Position-sensitive detectors 335
        
        Microstrip detectors 335
        
        Pixel detectors 336
        
        Other position-sensitive detectors 336
        
        K.4 Avalanche photodiode 335
        
        5.1.L Radiation damage in semiconductors 336
        
        L.1 Damage mechanism and NIEL scaling 337
        
        L.2 Leakage current 337
        
        L.3 Type inversion 339
        
        L.4 Depletion voltage 339
        
        L.5 Charge trapping and carrier lifetime 340
        
        L.6 Annealing 340
        
        5.2 Diamond detectors 340
        
        5.2.A Charge pair production 341
        
        5.2.B Recombination 342
        
        5.2.C Drift of charge pairs 342
        
        5.2.D Leakage current 345
        
        5.2.E Detector design 345
        
        5.2.F Radiation hardness 346
        
        5.2.G Applications 347
        
        5.3 Thermoluminescent detectors 347
        
        5.3.A Principle of thermoluminescence 348
        
        Problems 349
        
        Bibliography 350
        
        6 Scintillation detectors and photodetectors 353
        
        6.1 Scintillation mechanism and scintillator properties 354
        
        6.1.A Basic scintillation mechanism 354
        
        6.1.B Light yield 355
        
        6.1.C Rise and decay times 359
        
        6.1.D Quenching 361
        
        D.1 Self-quenching 361
        
        D.2 Impurity quenching 361
        
        D.3 Thermal quenching 362
        
        D.4 Energy quenching 362
        
        6.1.E Density and atomic weight 362
        
        6.1.F Mechanical properties and stability 362
        
        6.1.H Phosphorescence or afterglow 363
        
        6.1.G Optical properties 363
        
        6.1.I Temperature dependence 364
        
        6.1.J Radiation damage 366
        
        6.1.K Scintillation efficiency 367
        
        6.2 Organic scintillators 371
        
        6.2.A Scintillation mechanism 371
        
        6.2.B Plastic scintillators 374
        
        6.2.C Liquid scintillators 379
        
        6.2.D Crystalline scintillators 383
        
        D.1 Anthracene (C14H10) 383
        
        D.2 p-Terphenyl (C18C14) 384
        
        D.3 Stilbene (C14H12) 385
        
        6.3 Inorganic scintillators 385
        
        6.3.A Scintillation mechanism 386
        
        A.1 Exciton luminescence 386
        
        A.3 Core valence band luminescence 387
        
        A.2 Dopant luminescence 387
        
        6.3.B Radiation damage 389
        
        6.3.C Some common inorganic scintillators 389
        
        C.3 Thallium-doped cesium iodide (CsI:Tl) 391
        
        C.1 Thallium-doped sodium iodide (NaI:Tl) 391
        
        C.2 Sodium-doped cesium iodide (CsI:Na) 391
        
        C.6 Lead tungstate (PWO) 392
        
        C.4 Bismuth germanate (BGO) 392
        
        C.7 Cerium-doped gadolinium silicate (GSO) 392
        
        C.5 Cadmium tungstate (CWO) 392
        
        C.9 Cerium-doped yttrium aluminum perovskite (YAP:Ce) 393
        
        C.10 Liquid xenon 393
        
        C.8 Cerium-doped lutetium aluminum garnet (LuAG:Ce) 393

Author's affiliation

Syed Naeem Ahmed: Laurentian University, Ontario, Canada

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