Characterization, Epidemiology, and Management

Description

Characterization, Epidemiology and Management is the third volume in the Phytoplasma Diseases in Asian Countries series dedicated to the analysis of plant pathogens across Asia. Highlighting genomic studies and molecular approaches for rapid detection of phytoplasma diseases, the book discusses effective control measures for insect vectors across Asia. The chapters in this book discuss the latest biological controls and how best to manage and even eliminate phytoplasma diseases. This is an essential read for students, researchers and agriculturalists interested in plant pathology.

Phytoplasma are microorganisms that are transmitted by insect vectors, infecting various different types of annuals and perennials and causing serious damage to crops across Asia.

Highlights the latest advances in diagnostic technologies
Includes up-to-date information on genome sequencing of important phytoplasma strains across Asia
Discusses the epidemiology and management of phytoplasma-associated disease

Front Cover 2
Characterization, Epidemiology, and Management 3
Characterization, Epidemiology, and Management 5
Copyright 6
Dedication 7
Contents 11
List of contributors 17
Authors biography 21
Foreword 25
Vol III - Characterization, Epidemiology, and Management 27
1 - Novel methods of phytoplasma detection of phytoplasma in Asian countries 29
- 1. Introduction 29
- 2. Historical background 30
- 3. Symptomatic diagnosis 31
- 5. Light microscopy 32

Front Cover 2
Characterization, Epidemiology, and Management 3
Characterization, Epidemiology, and Management 5
Copyright 6
Dedication 7
Contents 11
List of contributors 17
Authors biography 21
Foreword 25
Vol III - Characterization, Epidemiology, and Management 27
1 - Novel methods of phytoplasma detection of phytoplasma in Asian countries 29
- 1. Introduction 29
- 2. Historical background 30
- 3. Symptomatic diagnosis 31
- 5. Light microscopy 32
- 4. Microscopic detection 32
- 6. Fluorescence microscopy 33
  - 6.1 Epifluorescence 33
  - 6.2 Immunofluorescence 33
- 7. Transmission electron microscopy 34
  - 7.1 Thin section procedure 34
  - 7.4 Critical-point drying technique 35
  - 7.2 Immunosorbent and immunoelectron microscopy 35
  - 7.5 Cryofixation 35
  - 7.3 Scanning electron microscopy 35
  - 7.6 Cryoscanning microscopy 36
- 8. Molecular detection 36
  - 8.1 DNA extraction 36
  - 8.2 Primer selection 37
  - 8.3 PCR techniques 38
  - 8.4 Nested PCR with universal or specific primers 38
  - 8.7 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification for field pathogen detection 39
  - 8.5 Quantitative PCR for routine detection and quantification 39
  - 8.6 Reverse transcription-PCR with crude sap extracts 39
  - 8.8 Microarray 40
    - 8.8.1 High-resolution melt analysis and digital PCR 40
  - 8.9 DNA barcoding of phytoplasmas with 16S rRNA and tuf gene sequences 41
- References 41
2 - Graft and vegetative transmission of phytoplasma-associated diseases in Asia and their management 49
- 1. Introduction 49
- 2. Graft transmission 50
  - 2.1 Graft transmission in woody plants 50
  - 2.2 Graft transmission in herbaceous plants 53
  - 2.4 Dodder transmission 57
  - 2.3 Transmission by micropropagation 57
- 3. Management 58
- References 60
- 4. Conclusions and perspectives 60
3 - Transmission of lime witches' broom 65
- 1. Introduction 65
- 2. Vector transmission 65
  - 2.1 Hishimonus phycitis 65
    - 2.1.1 Host range 66
    - 2.1.2 Host preference 66
  - 2.2 Diaphorina citri 67
    - 2.2.1 Management of the insect vector 67
  - 4. Graft transmission and experimental hosts 68
  - 3. Seed transmission 68
  - 5. Conclusion and perspectives 69
  - References 69
- 4 - Major insect vectors of phytoplasma diseases in Asia 73
  - 1. Introduction 73
  - 3. How the phytoplasma insect vectors can be identified? 74
  - 2. Insect acquisition and transmission of phytoplasmas 74
  - 4. Major insect vectors of phytoplasmas 77
    - 4.1 Hishimonus spp. 77
      - 4.1.1 Hishimonus phycitis (Distant, 1908) 77
        
        4.1.1.1 History of its identification as insect vector 78
        
        4.1.1.2 Biology 79
      - 4.1.2 Hishimonus sellatus (Uhler, 1896) 80
      - 4.1.3 Management 80
        
        4.1.3.1 Chemical control 80
        
        4.1.3.2 Biological controls 80
        
        4.1.3.3 New control approaches 81
      - 4.2 Orosius albicinctus Distant, 1918 82
        
        4.2.1 Vector status 82
        
        4.2.2 Management 84
        
        4.2.2.1 Chemical control 84
        
        4.3 Neoaliturus spp. 84
        
        4.3.1 Neoaliturus haematoceps (Mulsant and Rey, 1855) 84
        
        4.3.3 Neoaliturus fenestratus 86
        
        4.3.2 Neoaliturus tenellus 86
        
        5. Some minor phytoplasma insect vectors in Asia 86
        
        6. General management 87
        
        7. Conclusion 88
        
        References 88
        
        Further reading 94
      - 5 - Genomic studies on Asian phytoplasmas 95
        
        1. Background 95
        
        2. Historical perspective 97
        
        3. Biological insights 101
        
        3.1 Gene content and metabolism 101
        
        3.2 Effectors and putative secreted proteins 102
        
        3.3 Mobile genetic elements 103
        
        4. Linking genomics to taxonomy 104
        
        5. Conclusions and perspectives 105
        
        References 105
      - 6 - Cross-boundary movement of phytoplasmas in Asia and status of plant quarantine 113
        
        1. Introduction 113
        
        2. Exclusion of phytoplasma through quarantine 114
        
        2.1 International scenario: imports and exports 114
        
        2.2 Status of phytoplasmas as regulated pest in Asia 117
        
        2.3 National scenario: imports 117
        
        2.4 National scenario: exports 121
        
        2.5 National domestic quarantine 121
        
        3. Perspectives 122
        
        References 123
      - 7 - Updates on phytoplasma diseases management 125
        
        1. Introduction 125
        
        2. Quarantine 126
        
        3. Healthy planting material 128
        
        4. Antibiotics 129
        
        5. Insect vector control strategies 130
        
        6. Other management practices 131
        
        7. Host resistance and/or tolerance? 132
        
        9. Induced resistance 136
        
        8. Recovery 136
        
        10. Case study 1: witches' broom diseases of lime 137
        
        11. Case study 2: grapevine yellows 138
        
        12. Biotic resistance inducers 139
        
        14. Conclusions 140
        
        13. Biocontrol 140
        
        References 141
        
        Further reading 151
      - 8 - Management of insect vectors associated with phytoplasma diseases 153
        
        1. Introduction 153
        
        2. Vector taxonomy and ecology 153
        
        3. Insect vector managements 155
        
        3.1 Insecticides 155
        
        3.2 Clean propagation material 156
        
        3.3 Resistant plants 156
        
        3.4 Alternative host's and weeds control 157
        
        3.5 Habitat management 158
        
        3.6 Covering plants 158
        
        3.7 Biological controls 159
        
        3.8 Symbiotic control 160
        
        References 161
        
        4. Conclusion 161
        
        Further reading 164
      - 9 - Elimination of phytoplasmas: an effective control perspective 165
        
        1. Introduction 165
        
        2. In vivo methods 166
        
        2.1 Chemotherapy 166
        
        2.2 Thermotherapy by hot water or hot air 167
        
        3. In vitro culture 168
        
        3.1 In vitro meristem preparation in combination with in vitro thermotherapy 169
        
        4. In vitro chemotherapy 169
        
        5. Conclusion 170
        
        References 171
        
        Further reading 174
      - 10 - Phytoplasma resistance 175
        
        1. Introduction 175
        
        2. Natural (genetic) resistance 176
        
        2.1 Natural resistance in temperate fruit trees 177
        
        2.1.1 Apple proliferation 177
        
        2.1.2 Pear decline 178
        
        2.1.3 European stone fruit yellows 179
        
        2.2 Natural resistance in economically important crops 180
        
        2.2.2 Brinjal little leaf 180
        
        2.2.3 Jujube witches' broom 180
        
        2.2.1 Sesame phyllody 180
        
        3. Induced resistance 181
        
        3.1 Resistance inducers 181
        
        3.2 The “recovery” phenomenon 182
        
        3.3 Effectors and plant immunity 183
        
        4. Transgenic resistance 183
        
        5. Current status of phytoplasma resistance in India, Iran, Japan, and Turkey 184
        
        5.1 India 184
        
        5.2 Iran 184
        
        5.3 Japan 185
        
        5.4 Turkey 186
        
        References 187
        
        6. Conclusion and perspectives 187
        
        11 - microRNAs role in phytoplasma-associated developmental alterations 195
        
        1. Introduction 195
        
        1.1 Role of noncoding RNAs 195
        
        1.2 Discovery of microRNAs 195
        
        1.3 Biogenesis of microRNAs 196
        
        2. Role of microRNAs in vegetative and reproductive development in plants 196
        
        2.2 Root and shoot development in plants 197
        
        2.3 Vascular development 197
        
        2.1 Leaf development 197
        
        2.4 Flower and fruit development 197
        
        2.5 Abiotic and biotic stress 198
        
        3. microRNAs associated with phytoplasma-induced diseases 198
        
        3.1 Role of primary microRNAs involved in phytoplasma infection 198
        
        3.1.1 miR156 198
        
        3.1.3 miR159 203
        
        3.1.2 miR172 203
        
        4. Putative mechanism(s) of interaction between miRNAs and their target genes in response to phytoplasma infection 204
        
        4.2 Anthocyanin accumulation in leaves (leaf margins and petioles) 204
        
        4.1 Defective development of anthers 204
        
        4.3 Witches' broom and phyllody 206
        
        4.4 Dwarfism or stunting 207
        
        Acknowledgments 209
        
        5. Conclusion 209
        
        6. Future directions 209
        
        References 210
        
        12 - Characteristic features of genome and pathogenic factors of phytoplasmas 215
        
        1. Characteristic features of phytoplasma genomes 215
        
        2. Characteristic features of pathogenic factors 216
        
        References 218
        
        Index 223
        
        B 223
        
        C 223
        
        A 223
        
        D 223
        
        G 224
        
        E 224
        
        H 224
        
        F 224
        
        J 225
        
        M 225
        
        K 225
        
        I 225
        
        L 225
        
        O 226
        
        P 226
        
        N 226
        
        R 226
        
        S 227
        
        W 227
        
        T 227
        
        Y 227
        
        V 227
        
        Back Cover 229

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