Evolution of the Earth

Description

Evolution of the Earth focuses on the formation of Earth. Topics include the differention of the core, mantle and crust; the formation of the ocean basins and continents; outgassing and volcanism; the initiation of plate tectonics, the origin and persistence of Earth's magnetic field; the growth of the inner core; changes in mantle convection through time; and the impact of life on the planet. The volume takes an interdisciplinary viewpoint that emphasizes the interplay of geophysics, other aspects of earth science and biological evolution. Some outstanding questions are identified and debated.

Self-contained volume starts with an overview of the subject then explores each topic with in depth detail

Extensive reference lists and cross references with other volumes to facilitate further research

Full-color figures and tables support the text and aid in understanding

Content suited for both the expert and non-expert

Cover 2
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 5
Copyright Page 6
Table of Contents 7
Preface 9
Contributors 13
Editorial Advisory Board 15
Chapter 1 Earth Formation and Evolution 17
- 1.1 Introduction 17
- 1.2 Physical and Chemical Constraints 20
- 1.3 Commentary on Formation Models 24
- 1.4 Commentary on Early Evolution Models 25
- 1.5 Outstanding Questions 26
- References 27
Chapter 2 The Composition and Major Reservoirs of the Earth Around the Time of the Moon-Forming Giant Impact 29

Cover 2
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 5
Copyright Page 6
Table of Contents 7
Preface 9
Contributors 13
Editorial Advisory Board 15
Chapter 1 Earth Formation and Evolution 17
- 1.1 Introduction 17
- 1.2 Physical and Chemical Constraints 20
- 1.3 Commentary on Formation Models 24
- 1.4 Commentary on Early Evolution Models 25
- 1.5 Outstanding Questions 26
- References 27
Chapter 2 The Composition and Major Reservoirs of the Earth Around the Time of the Moon-Forming Giant Impact 29
- 2.1 Introduction 29
- 2.3 The Birth of the Solar System 30
- 2.2 Key Features of the Earth and Moon 30
- 2.4 Meteorites 32
- 2.5 Meteorites and the Composition of the Earth and Its Primary Reservoirs 34
- 2.6 The Circumstellar Disk and the Composition of the Earth 37
- 2.7 Dynamics of Planet Formation 39
- 2.8 The Age of the Earth 40
- 2.9 Short-Lived Nuclides and Early Processes 43
- 2.10 Rates of Earth Accretion and Differentiation 45
- 2.11 The Age of the Moon 47
- 2.12 First Principles of Chemical Constraints on Core Formation 47
- 2.13 Explanations for the ‘Excess Siderophile Problem’ 49
- 2.14 The ‘Deep Magma Ocean’ Model of Core Formation 49
- 2.15 Core Segregation during Growth of the Earth 51
- 2.16 Oxidation State of the Earth during and after Accretion 53
- 2.17 Isotopic Evidence for Volatile Losses from the Earth during Accretion 54
- 2.18 Hidden Reservoirs, Impact Erosion, and the Composition of the Earth 57
- 2.19 Concluding Overview 59
- References 61
- Acknowledgments 61
Chapter 3 Formation of Earth’s Core 67
- 3.1 Core Formation in the Earth and Terrestrial Planets 67
- 3.2 Physics of Core Formation 71
- 3.3 Observational and Experimental Constraints 85
- 3.4 Summary 99
- Acknowledgments 100
- References 100
Chapter 4 Magma Oceans and Primordial Mantle Differentiation 107
- Nomenclature 107
- 4.1 Earth Accretion and the Giant Impact Hypothesis 108
- 4.2 Geochemical Evidence for Magma Ocean 110
- 4.3 Thermal Structure of a Convecting Magma Ocean 111
- 4.4 Viscosity of the Magma Ocean 114
- 4.5 Convection in the Magma Ocean 116
- 4.6 Fractional versus Equilibrium Crystallization 118
- 4.7 Crystal Size in the Magma Ocean 121
- 4.8 Crystallization beyond the Rheological Transition 124
- 4.9 The Last Stages of Crystallization 125
- 4.10 Summary 128
- Acknowledgment 129
- References 129
Chapter 5 Water, the Solid Earth, and the Atmosphere: The Genesis and Effects of a Wet Surface on a Mostly Dry Planet 137
- 5.1 Introduction 137
- 5.2 Accretion 138
- 5.3 Noble Gases: Evidence for Early, Rapid Degassing 140
- 5.4 Deuterium/Hydrogen Ratios and Earth’s Hydrosphere 141
- 5.5 Impacts and Volatile Loss 142
- 5.6 Formation and Evolution of the Atmosphere 144
- 5.7 Ancient Rocks: Signatures of Damp Material in and on the Early Earth 145
- 5.8 Constraints on the Volume of the Oceans through Time 146
- 5.9 Degassing and Regassing Rates 147
- 5.10 The Residence Mechanisms and Effects of Water on Mantle Properties 149
- 5.11 Rheology 152
- 5.13 Water/Hydrogen in the Core? 153
- 5.12 Diffusion 153
- References 154
- 5.14 Conclusions 154
- Acknowledgment 154
Chapter 6 Plate Tectonics through Time 161
- 6.1 Introduction 161
- 6.2 Physical Preliminaries 162
- 6.3 Aftermath of the Moon-Forming Impact 170
- 6.4 Dawn of Plate Tectonics 175
- 6.5 The Rate of Plate Tectonics over Time 177
- 6.7 Biological Implications 178
- 6.6 Death of Plate Tectonics 178
- 6.8 Conclusions and Musings 180
- Acknowledgments 181
- Appendix 1: Thermal Models 181
- Appendix 2: Convection beneath Free-Slip Lid 182
- References 183
Chapter 7 Mechanisms of Continental Crust Growth 187
- 7.1 Introduction 187
- 7.2 Structure and Chemical Composition of the Continental Crust 189
- 7.3 Models of Crust Formation and Continental Growth 194
- 7.4 Oceanic Plateaus and Accreted Terranes 197
- 7.5 Rapid Growth of Major Continental Segments 203
- References 207
- 7.6 Summary 207
Chapter 8 Thermal Evolution of the Mantle 213
- 8.1 Introduction 213
- 8.2 The Convecting Mantle 214
- 8.3 Internal Radioactivity and the Present Cooling Rate 218
- 8.4 Variations on Standard Cooling Models 219
- 8.5 Coupled Core–Mantle Evolution and the Geodynamo 222
- 8.6 Alternative Models of Thermal History 224
- 8.7 Implications for Tectonic Evolution 226
- 8.8 Conclusion 230
- References 230
Chapter 9 Thermal and Compositional Evolution of the Core 233
- 9.1 Introduction 233
- 9.2 Present-Day State of the Core 234
- 9.3 Evolution of the Core 240
- Acknowledgment 253
- References 253
- 9.4 Conclusions 253
Chapter 10 History of Earth Rotation 259
- 10.1 Polar Motion and Length-of-Day Variations through (Geological) Time 259
- 10.2 Theoretical and Observational Background I: Angular Momentum Conservation on Subannual to Interannual Timescales 261
- 10.3 Theoretical Background II: The Viscoelastic Rotational Response to the Late Pleistocene Ice-Age Cycle 266
- 10.4 Observations of Millenial-Scale Secular Variations in Earth Rotation Anomalies 275
- 10.5 Earth’s Rotational Response to the Cyclic Reglaciation Cycle of Late Pleistocene Time: Data-Model Intercomparisons 279
- 10.6 The Impact of Variations in the Geometry of Earth’s Orbit around the Sun upon Earth System Evolution 295
- 10.7 Earth Rotation Variations and Mantle Convective Mixing 300
- References 306
Chapter 11 Coevolution of Life and Earth 311
- 11.1 Introduction 311
- 11.2 Barren Worlds as Null Hypotheses 314
- 11.3 Biosignatures of Earth 315
- 11.4 Origin of Life on Earth 323
- 11.5 Coevolutionary Histories 326
- 11.6 Conclusions 333
- References 333

Treatise on Geophysics

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