Fluvial-Tidal Sedimentology

Description

Fluvial-Tidal Sedimentology provides information on the ‘Tidal-Fluvial Transition', the transition zone between river and tidal environments, and includes contributions that address some of the most fundamental research questions, including how the morphology of the tidal-fluvial transition zone evolves over short (days) and long (decadal) time periods and for different tidal and fluvial regimes, the structure of the river flow as it varies in its magnitude over tidal currents and how this changes at the mixing interface between fresh and saline water and at the turbidity maximum, the role of suspended sediment in controlling bathymetric change and bar growth and the role of fine-grained sediment (muds and flocs), whether it is possible to differentiate between ‘fluvial’ and ‘tidally’ influenced bedforms as preserved in bars and within the adjacent floodplain and what are the diagnostic sedimentary facies of tidal-fluvial deposits and how are these different from ‘pure’ fluvial and tidal deposits, amongst other topics.

The book presents the latest research on the processes and deposits of the tidal-fluvial transition, documenting recent major field programs that have quantified the flow, sediment transport, and bed morphology in tidal-fluvial zones. It uses description of contemporary environments and ancient outcrop analogues to characterize the facies change through the tidal-fluvial transition.

Presents the latest outcomes from recent, large, integrated field programs in estuaries around the world
Gives detailed field descriptions (outcrop, borehole, core, contemporary sediments) of tidal-fluvial deposits
Accesses new models and validation datasets for estuarine processes and deposits
Presents descriptions of contemporary environments and ancient outcrop analogues to characterize the facies change through the tidal-fluvial transition

Front Cover 2
Fluvial-Tidal Sedimentology 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 19
Preface 23
Part 1: Context 25
- Chapter 1: Deciphering the relative importance of fluvial and tidal processes in the fluvial-marine transition 27
  - 1.1. Introduction 27
  - 1.2. Process Framework for the Fluvial-Tidal Transition 29
  - 1.3. Setting of the Case Studies Used in This Chapter 36
    - 1.3.1. Lajas Formation, Neuquén Basin, Argentina 37
    - 1.3.2. McMurray Formation, Northern Alberta 40
    - 1.3.3. Neslen Formation, Book Cliffs, Utah 40
    - 1.3.4. Tilje Formation, Offshore Norway 41

Front Cover 2
Fluvial-Tidal Sedimentology 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 19
Preface 23
Part 1: Context 25
- Chapter 1: Deciphering the relative importance of fluvial and tidal processes in the fluvial-marine transition 27
  - 1.1. Introduction 27
  - 1.2. Process Framework for the Fluvial-Tidal Transition 29
  - 1.3. Setting of the Case Studies Used in This Chapter 36
    - 1.3.1. Lajas Formation, Neuquén Basin, Argentina 37
    - 1.3.2. McMurray Formation, Northern Alberta 40
    - 1.3.3. Neslen Formation, Book Cliffs, Utah 40
    - 1.3.4. Tilje Formation, Offshore Norway 41
    - 1.3.5. Bluesky Formation, Peace River Area, Alberta 44
  - 1.4. Description and Interpretation of the Case Studies 45
    - 1.4.1. Case Study1: Lower Lajas Formation 45
    - 1.4.2. Case Study2: McMurray Formation 47
    - 1.4.3. Case Study3: Middle Lajas Formation 50
    - 1.4.4. Case Study4: Middle Neslen Formation 52
    - 1.4.5. Case Study5: Middle Neslen Formation 54
    - 1.4.6. Case Study6: Tilje Formation 56
    - 1.4.7. Case Study7: Bluesky Formation 58
  - 1.5. Discussion 61
  - 1.6. Conclusions 63
  - References 64
  - Acknowledgments 64
- Part 2: Modern 71
  - Chapter 2: Estuarine turbidity maxima revisited: Instrumental approaches, remote sensing, modeling studies, and new direction 73
    - 2.1. Introduction 73
      - 2.1.1. Purpose: Toward a New Understanding 73
      - 2.1.2. What Is an ETM and Why Does It Matter? 74
      - 2.1.3. Scope of Paper 79
    - 2.2. In Situ Measurements: Recent Advances 80
      - 2.2.1. Acoustical Measurements and Instruments 80
        
        2.2.1.1. Uses of the Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter 80
        
        2.2.1.2. ADCP methods 81
        
        2.2.1.3. Other acoustic methods 87
      - 2.2.2. Optical Measurements and Instruments 88
        
        2.2.2.1. Optical backscatter sensors 88
        
        2.2.2.2. The laser in situ scattering transmissometer 88
        
        2.2.2.3. Holography and floc cameras 90
        
        2.2.2.4. Inherent optical property measurements and theoretical modeling of particle optics 91
      - 2.3. Building an Integral Understanding of ETM via Remote Sensing: Possibilities and Challenges 94
        
        2.3.1. Measuring Turbidity Remotely 95
        
        2.3.2. Lessons Learned from Remote Measurements in Estuaries 96
      - 2.4. ETM Dynamic: Insights from Theory, Modeling and Observations 100
        
        2.4.1. Estuarine Circulation and ETM Formation 100
        
        2.4.2. The Traditional Model 102
        
        2.4.3. More Complex Models 106
        
        2.4.4. Integral Analysis of a Channelized ETM 107
      - 2.5. Discussion: Toward a More Complete Understanding of ETM Dynamics 114
        
        2.5.1. Making Use of New In Situ and Remote Sensing Capabilities 114
        
        2.5.2. Dynamical Questions 115
        
        2.5.2.1. Trapping mechanisms and the material trapped 115
        
        2.5.2.2. Nonstationary aspects of ETM 117
        
        2.5.2.3. Distinguishing human and climatic impacts on ETM dynamics and ecosystems 117
        
        2.5.2.4. ETM dynamics and contaminants 118
        
        2.6. Summary and Conclusions 119
        
        Acknowledgments 120
        
        References 120
      - Chapter 3: Sedimentological trends across the tidal-fluvial transition, Fraser River, Canada: A review and some broader impli 135
        
        3.1. Introduction 135
        
        3.1.1. Fraser River, Canada 136
        
        3.2. Depositional Trends Across the TFT of the Fraser River 137
        
        3.2.1. Sedimentological Trends 137
        
        3.2.2. Ichnological Trends 140
        
        3.2.3. Palynological and Geochemical Trends 142
        
        3.3. The Broader Implications of Depositional Trends from the Lower Fraser River 142
        
        3.3.1. Expected Variations in Depositional Trends 146
        
        3.4. Conclusions 147
        
        References 148
      - Chapter 4: Three-dimensional meander bend flow within the tidally influenced fluvial zone 151
        
        4.1. Introduction 151
        
        4.2. Methods 154
        
        4.2.1. Field Area 154
        
        4.2.2. Field Methods 156
        
        4.3. Results 157
        
        4.3.1. High River-Neap Tide 158
        
        4.3.2. Low River-Spring Tide 161
        
        4.3.3. Repeated Bend Apex Measurements at LRST 162
        
        4.4. Discussion 165
        
        4.5. Conclusions 169
        
        References 170
      - Chapter 5: Sedimentology of a tidal point-bar within the fluvial-tidal transition: River Severn Estuary, UK 173
        
        5.1. Introduction 173
        
        5.2. Severn Estuary 174
        
        5.2.1. Sampling Sites 177
        
        5.3. Methods 180
        
        5.3.1. Stratigraphic Descriptions 180
        
        5.3.1.1. Pollen descriptions 181
        
        5.4. Results 182
        
        5.4.1. Sedimentary Facies 182
        
        5.4.1.3. F3: Poorly sorted coarse sand and gravel facies 182
        
        5.4.1.1. F1: Red mudstone 182
        
        5.4.1.4. F4: Homogeneous sand facies 182
        
        5.4.1.2. F2: Blue clay facies 182
        
        5.4.1.5. F5: Heterolithic facies 185
        
        5.4.1.6. F6: Orange-brown silty-mud facies 188
        
        5.4.1.7. F7: Gray-dark organic matter stratification in a mud matrix facies 189
        
        5.4.1.8. F8: Gray-brown marsh facies 189
        
        5.4.2. Summary of Facies Assemblages 189
        
        5.4.3. Distinctiveness of the Transitional Facies Assemblage 190
        
        5.4.3.1. The first unit is the marsh (F8) facies 190
        
        5.4.3.2. The second unit is the heterolithic facies (F5) 190
        
        5.4.3.3. The third unit is constituted of fine to coarse sand (F3+F4) 190
        
        5.4.3.4. Box tray samples of Rodley sand bar 192
        
        5.4.4. Pollen 194
        
        5.4.4.2. Transition (Core 5) 194
        
        5.4.4.1. Fluvial (Core 4) 194
        
        5.4.4.4. Detrended correspondence analysis 195
        
        5.4.4.3. Marine (Core 7) 195
        
        5.4.5. Diatoms 199
        
        5.4.5.2. Transitional (Core 5) 199
        
        5.4.5.3. Marine (Core 7) 199
        
        5.4.5.1. Fluvial (Core 4) 199
        
        5.5. Discussion 199
        
        5.5.1. Allogenic Processes 200
        
        5.5.2. Autogenic Processes 201
        
        5.5.3. Model of Deposition 204
        
        5.6. Conclusions 206
        
        References 207
        
        Acknowledgments 207
        
        Part 3: Ancient 215
        
        Chapter 6: Mid to late Holocene geomorphological and sedimentological evolution of the fluvial-tidal zone: Lower Columbia Riv 217
        
        6.1. Introduction 217
        
        6.2. Background 221
        
        6.2.1. LCR: Geological Setting and Study Reach 221
        
        6.3. Methodologies 222
        
        6.3.1. Sediment Core Collection and OSL Sampling 222
        
        6.3.2. OSL Laboratory Analysis 224
        
        6.4. Results 225
        
        6.4.2. LCR Depositional Patterns: 4.3-2.0ka 225
        
        6.4.1. Mid-Holocene to Present Depositional Patterns 225
        
        6.4.3. LCR Depositional Patterns: 2.0-1.0ka 229
        
        6.4.4. LCR Depositional Patterns: 1.0ka to Present 234
        
        6.5. Discussion 237
        
        6.5.1. LCR Mid to Late Holocene Depositional Setting: "Bay-Head Delta" Hypothesis? 237
        
        6.5.2. LCR Mid to Late Holocene Geomorphic/Sedimentological Model 239
        
        6.6. Conclusions 246
        
        References 247
        
        Acknowledgments 247
        
        Chapter 7: Palaeo-Orinoco (Pliocene) channels on the tide-dominated Morne L'Enfer delta lobes and estuaries, SW Trinidad 251
        
        7.1. Introduction 251
        
        7.2. Geological Background 252
        
        7.2.1. Regional Tectonic and Stratigraphic Setting 252
        
        7.2.2. Methodology and Data Sets 253
        
        7.2.3. Architecture of Deltaic and Estuarine Units in the MLE Succession 255
        
        7.3. Palaeo-Orinoco Context of Tidal-Fluvial Channels 260
        
        7.4. Criteria for the Recognition of Tidal Signals in and Around the Channels 263
        
        7.4.2. Palaeoflow Indicators: Bidirectional Ripples 265
        
        7.4.1. Fluid mud Layers 265
        
        7.4.3. Cross-Strata 267
        
        7.4.4. Tidal Rhythmites 268
        
        7.4.4.1. Rhythmites with tidal bundling from asymmetric tidal cycles (with double mud drapes) 268
        
        7.4.4.2. Tidal bundling from a series of spring-neap tides 272
        
        7.4.5. Flaser (Frequent Mud Drapes), Wavy, Lenticular, and "Pin-Stripe" Bedding 272
        
        7.5. Examples of Palaeo-Orinoco Tidal-Fluvial Channels 276
        
        7.5.1. Regressive Channels (Delta Plain and Delta-Front Distributary Channels) 276
        
        7.5.1.1. Fluvial-tidal distributary channels on delta plain or entering embayment 277
        
        7.5.1.2. Fluvial-tidal distributary channels cutting down onto the delta front 277
        
        7.5.2. Transgressive Estuarine Channels 285
        
        7.5.2.1. Transgressive inner estuarine channel 285
        
        7.5.2.2. Transgressive outer estuarine channel 287
        
        7.5.3. Facies Comparison Between Regressive and Transgressive Tidal Channels 291
        
        7.6. Discussion 296
        
        7.7. Conclusions 298
        
        Acknowledgments 300
        
        References 300
        
        Chapter 8: The ichnology of the fluvial-tidal transition: Interplay of ecologic and evolutionary controls 307
        
        8.1. Introduction 307
        
        8.2. Ecologic Controls on the Ichnofauna at the Fluvial-Tidal Zone: Insights from Neoichnology 308
        
        8.3. Case Studies 315
        
        8.3.1. Carboniferous of Kansas (Tonganoxie Sandstone Member) 316
        
        8.3.3. Upper Carboniferous of Alabama (Mary Lee Coal Zone) 318
        
        8.3.2. Upper Carboniferous of Nova Scotia (Coal Mine Point Channel Body) 318
        
        8.3.4. Upper Carboniferous of Indiana (Mansfield Formation) 319
        
        8.3.6. Upper Cretaceous of Spain (Tremp Formation) 320
        
        8.3.5. Lower Permian of New Mexico (Robledo Mountains Formation) 320
        
        8.3.7. Lower Oligocene to lower Miocene of Venezuela (Guafita Formation) 322
        
        8.3.8. Lower Miocene of Venezuela (Oficina Formation) 323
        
        8.3.9. Lower Miocene of Northern Brazil (Barreiras Formation) 326
        
        8.3.10. Upper Miocene of Western Brazil (Solimões Formation) 327
        
        8.4. Summary of Observations and Discussion: Ecologic and Evolutionary Controls 329
        
        8.4.1. Ecologic Controls 329
        
        8.4.2. Evolutionary Controls 332
        
        8.5. Conclusions 336
        
        Acknowledgments 337
        
        References 337
        
        Chapter 9: A reappraisal of large, heterolithic channel fills in the upper Permian Rangal Coal Measures of the Bowen Basin, Q 347
        
        9.1. Introduction 347
        
        9.2. Geological Setting 348
        
        9.3. Previous Research 351
        
        9.4. Facies Analysis 354
        
        9.5. Evidence for Tidal Influence 356
        
        9.5.1. Stratigraphic Context 356
        
        9.5.2. Inclined Heterolithic Stratification 358
        
        9.5.3. Small-Scale Sedimentary Structures and Trace Fossils 359
        
        9.5.4. Palaeocurrent Data 362
        
        9.5.5. Fossil Fish 363
        
        9.6. Discussion 363
        
        9.7. Conclusions 369
        
        Acknowledgments 371
        
        References 371
        
        Chapter 10: Facies and architecture of unusual fluvial-tidal channels with inclined heterolithic strata: Campanian Neslen For 377
        
        10.1. Introduction 377
        
        10.2. Regional Geology and Previous Work 378
        
        10.2.1. Neslen and Sego/Corcoran/Cozette Deposits as a Low-Accommodation Interval 378
        
        10.2.2. Neslen-Sego Strongly Tide-Influenced Shorelines 380
        
        10.2.3. Neslen Tidal-Fluvial Channels Within the Context of Subregional Stratigraphy 380
        
        10.3. Methods and Data 383
        
        10.4. Results 384
        
        10.4.1. Facies Description and Interpretation 384
        
        10.4.1.3. Facies 3: Highly bioturbated cross-stratified sandstone 388
        
        10.4.1.1. Facies 1: Bidirectional cross-stratified sandstone 388
        
        10.4.1.2. Facies 2: Unidirectional cross-stratified sandstone 388
        
        10.4.1.4. Facies 4: Rippled cross-laminated sandstone 390
        
        10.4.1.5. Facies 5: Deformed sandstone 392
        
        10.4.1.6. Facies 6: Mudstones 393
        
        10.4.1.7. Facies 7: Carbonaceous shales and coals 393
        
        10.4.1.8. Facies 8: Shell beds 393
        
        10.4.2. Tidal-Fluvial Channel (IHS) Facies 394
        
        10.4.2.1. Facies of Channels 4 and 5 at Cliff 1 394
        
        10.4.2.2. What are the tidal indicators in the channelized IHS deposits? 398
        
        10.4.2.3. IHS in tide-influenced bay-head delta deposits, contrasts with the IHS tidal-fluvial channels 400
        
        10.4.2.4. Bay-head delta deposits facies 401
        
        10.4.3. IHS Architectures of Neslen FORMATION 402
        
        10.4.3.1. Stacked IHS at Cliff 1 402
        
        10.4.3.3. Bed Thickness of Individual Channels at Cliff 1 404
        
        10.4.3.2. Bed Thickness Variability at Cliff 1 404
        
        10.4.3.4. IHS at Cliff 2 405
        
        10.4.4. Channel Reconstruction Based on Point-Bar Accretion Surfaces 405
        
        10.4.5. Lateral Correlation of the IHS 407
        
        10.5. Discussion 409
        
        10.5.1. Fluvial-Tidal Channels of Neslen Formation Compared with Modern Tidal Channel Deposits in Gomso Bay, Korea 409
        
        10.5.2. Comparison of Neslen IHS with Other Examples 412
        
        Acknowledgments 414
        
        References 414
        
        10.6. Conclusions 414
        
        Chapter 11: Geologic reservoir characterization of Carboniferous fluvio-tidal deposits of the Illinois Basin, USA 419
        
        11.1. Introduction 419
        
        11.2. Geologic Setting 421
        
        11.2.1. Tectonic Setting 421
        
        11.2.2. Stratigraphic and Depositional Setting 421
        
        11.3. Methodology: Characterization of the Bridgeport Reservoirs 425
        
        11.4. Sedimentology of the Bridgeport Sandstone Reservoirs 427
        
        11.4.1. Facies C: Coal and Carbonaceous Shale 429
        
        11.4.1.1. Description 429
        
        11.4.1.2. Interpretation 429
        
        11.4.2. Facies Fl: Laminated Shale 433
        
        11.4.2.1. Description 433
        
        11.4.2.2. Interpretation 433
        
        11.4.3. Facies Fmr: Massive Sandy Siltstone to Fine-Grained Silty Sandstone 434
        
        11.4.3.1. Description 434
        
        11.4.3.2. Interpretation 436
        
        11.4.4. Facies Fs: Massive Sandy Siltstone 436
        
        11.4.4.1. Description 436
        
        11.4.4.2. Interpretation 436
        
        11.4.5. Facies Sfl: Lenticular-Bedded Sandstone 436
        
        11.4.5.1. Description 436
        
        11.4.5.2. Interpretation 439
        
        11.4.6. Facies Sr: Ripple-Bedded Sandstone 439
        
        11.4.6.2. Interpretation 439
        
        11.4.6.1. Description 439
        
        11.4.7. Facies Sh: Fine- to Medium-Grained Planar Laminated Sandstone 440
        
        11.4.7.1. Description 440
        
        11.4.7.2. Interpretation 441
        
        11.4.8. Facies Sm: Medium- to Coarse-Grained Massive Sandstone 442
        
        11.4.8.2. Interpretation 442
        
        11.4.8.1. Description 442
        
        11.4.9. Facies Sp: Fine- to Coarse-Grained Planar Cross-Bedded Sandstone 443
        
        11.4.9.1. Description 443
        
        11.4.9.2. Interpretation 445
        
        11.4.10. Facies Gm: Crudely Bedded Gravel or Gravelly Sandstone 445
        
        11.4.10.1. Description 445
        
        11.4.10.2. Interpretation 445
        
        11.5. Facies Associations of the Bridgeport Sandstones 445
        
        11.5.1. Facies Associations of the Griggs Sandstone 447
        
        11.5.1.2. Fluvial-tidal delta front/delta plain facies association 447
        
        11.5.1.1. Prodelta/coastal shelf facies association 447
        
        11.5.1.3. Coastal plain peat swamp facies association 450
        
        11.5.2. Nonreservoir Lateral Equivalent of the Griggs Sandstone 450
        
        11.5.2.1. Abandoned channel facies association 450
        
        11.5.3. Facies Associations of the Robins Sandstone 451
        
        11.5.3.1. Braided fluvial/incised valley facies association 454
        
        11.5.3.2. Fluvial-tidal estuarine facies association 455
        
        11.6. Depositional Model of the Bridgeport B Interval 456
        
        11.7. Fluvial-tidal Transition Zone 461
        
        11.8. Conclusions 462
        
        References 463
        
        Acknowledgments 463
        
        Chapter 12: Fluvial to tidal transition zone facies in the McMurray Formation (Christina River, Alberta, Canada), with emphas 469
        
        12.1. Introduction 469
        
        12.2. Location and Stratigraphy 471
        
        12.3. General Depositional Setting 473
        
        12.4. Methods 477
        
        12.5. Facies Analysis 482
        
        12.5.1. Description 482
        
        12.5.1.1. Outcrop scale 482
        
        12.5.1.2. Palaeoflow reconstruction, with emphasis on bottomset characteristics 485
        
        12.5.1.3. Bioturbation 488
        
        12.5.1.4. Depositional periodicity at dune scale 489
        
        12.5.2. Interpretation and Discussion 491
        
        12.6. Conclusions 496

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