Primitive Meteorites and Asteroids

Opis

Primitive Meteorites and Asteroids: Physical, Chemical, and Spectroscopic Observations Paving the Way to Exploration covers the physical, chemical and spectroscopic aspects of asteroids, providing important data and research on carbonaceous chondrites and primitive meteorites. This information is crucial to the success of missions to parent bodies, thus contributing to an understanding of the early solar system. The book offers an interdisciplinary perspective relevant to many fields of planetary science, as well as cosmochemistry, planetary astronomy, astrobiology, geology and space engineering.

Including contributions from planetary and missions scientists worldwide, the book collects the fundamental knowledge and cutting-edge research on carbonaceous chondrites and their parent bodies into one accessible resource, thus contributing to the future of space exploration.

Presents the most current data and information on the mission-relevant characteristics of primitive asteroids
Addresses the physical, chemical and spectral characteristics of carbonaceous chondritic meteorites and the bearings on successful exploration of their parent asteroids
Includes chapters on geotechnical properties and resource extraction

Spis treści

Front Cover 2
PRIMITIVE METEORITES AND ASTEROIDS 3
PRIMITIVE METEORITES AND ASTEROIDS: PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS PAVING THE WAY TO EXPLORATION 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 11
Acknowledgments 13
1 - A Brief History of Spacecraft Missions to Asteroids and Protoplanets 15
- 1.1 GALILEO: 951 GASPRA 16
- 1.2 GALILEO: 243 IDA 18
- 1.3 GALILEO: DACTYL 19
- 1.4 NEAR-SHOEMAKER: 253 MATHILDE 20
- 1.5 DEEP SPACE 1: 9969 BRAILLE 22
- 1.6 NEAR-SHOEMAKER: 433 EROS 23
- 1.7 CASSINI–HUYGENS: 2685 MASURSKY 27

Front Cover 2
PRIMITIVE METEORITES AND ASTEROIDS 3
PRIMITIVE METEORITES AND ASTEROIDS: PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS PAVING THE WAY TO EXPLORATION 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 11
Acknowledgments 13
1 - A Brief History of Spacecraft Missions to Asteroids and Protoplanets 15
- 1.1 GALILEO: 951 GASPRA 16
- 1.2 GALILEO: 243 IDA 18
- 1.3 GALILEO: DACTYL 19
- 1.4 NEAR-SHOEMAKER: 253 MATHILDE 20
- 1.5 DEEP SPACE 1: 9969 BRAILLE 22
- 1.6 NEAR-SHOEMAKER: 433 EROS 23
- 1.7 CASSINI–HUYGENS: 2685 MASURSKY 27
- 1.8 STARDUST: 5535 ANNEFRANK 29
- 1.9 HAYABUSA: 25143 ITOKAWA 30
- 1.10 NEW HORIZONS: 132524 APL 33
- 1.11 ROSETTA: 2867 STEINS 34
- 1.12 ROSETTA: 21 LUTETIA 37
- 1.13 DAWN: 4 VESTA 39
- 1.14 CHANG'E: 4179 TOUTATIS 42
- 1.15 DAWN: 1 CERES 44
- 1.16 OSIRIS-REX: 101955 BENNU 48
- 1.17 HAYABUSA2: 162173 RYUGU 53
- 1.18 LUCY: JUPITER TROJANS 55
- 1.19 PSYCHE: 16 PSYCHE 60
- References 62
- Further Reading 71
2 - Physical, Chemical, and Petrological Characteristics of Chondritic Materials and Their Relationships to Small S ... 73
- 2.1 INTRODUCTION 73
- 2.2 ORDINARY CHONDRITES AND THEIR COUNTERPART ASTEROIDS 81
  - 2.2.1 Physical Properties of Ordinary Chondritic Material 81
  - 2.2.2 Primary (Nebular) Characteristics of the Ordinary Chondrites 82
    - 2.2.2.1 Chondrules in Ordinary Chondrites 82
    - 2.2.2.2 Refractory Inclusions in Ordinary Chondrites 83
    - 2.2.2.3 Fine-Grained Materials in Ordinary Chondrites 83
  - 2.2.3 Aqueous Alteration in Ordinary Chondrites 83
  - 2.2.4 Impact-Related Processes and Brecciation in Ordinary Chondrites 84
  - 2.2.5 Thermal Metamorphism in Ordinary Chondrites 85
    - 2.2.5.1 Boulder Scale: Proposed Shape–Strength Relationships in Ordinary Chondrites 86
    - 2.2.5.2 Regolith-Grain Scale: Shape and Comminution Processes in OCs 89
  - 2.2.6 Terrestrial Weathering of Ordinary Chondrites 90
- 2.3 ENSTATITE CHONDRITES AND THEIR COUNTERPART ASTEROIDS 91
  - 2.3.1 Physical Properties of Enstatite Chondrites 91
  - 2.3.3 Minerals of Enstatite Chondrites 92
  - 2.3.2 Primary (Nebular) Characteristics of the Enstatite Chondrites 92
    - 2.3.2.3 Fine-Grained Materials in Enstatite Chondrites 92
    - 2.3.2.1 Chondrules in Enstatite Chondrites 92
    - 2.3.2.2 Refractory Inclusions in Enstatite Chondrites 92
  - 2.3.4 Hydrous Minerals in Enstatite Chondrites 93
- 2.4 CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITES AND THEIR COUNTERPART ASTEROIDS 94
  - 2.4.1 Regolith Properties of Carbonaceous Chondrites 94
  - 2.4.2 Physical Properties, Chemical Composition, and Mineralogy of CM Chondrites and Processes Affecting These Meteorites 96
    - 2.4.2.1 Physical Properties of CM Chondrites 96
    - 2.4.2.2 Primary (Nebular) Characteristics of the CM Chondrites 97
      - 2.4.2.2.1 CHONDRULES IN CM CHONDRITES 100
      - 2.4.2.2.2 FINE-GRAINED MATERIALS IN CM CHONDRITES 101
        
        2.4.2.2.2.1 CARBONATES IN CM CHONDRITES 102
      - 2.4.2.2.3 REFRACTORY INCLUSIONS IN CM CHONDRITES: CAIS IN CM CHONDRITES 104
        
        2.4.2.2.3.1 AOAS IN CM CHONDRITES 104
      - 2.4.2.3 Mineral Relations and Petrography of Aqueous Alteration in CM2 Chondrites 104
      - 2.4.2.4 Progressive Alteration of CMs and a Conceptual Model 106
      - 2.4.2.5 Regolith Processes Affecting CM Chondrites and CM Chondrite Hosts 109
      - 2.4.2.6 Terrestrial Chemical and Mineralogical Weathering Processes Affecting the CM Chondrites 112
      - 2.4.2.7 Implications of Secondary Process for Exploration of CM Parent Bodies 113
    - 2.4.3 Physical Properties, Chemical Composition, and Mineralogy of CI Chondrites and Processes Affecting These Meteorites 114
      - 2.4.3.1 Physical Properties of CI Chondrites 114
      - 2.4.3.2 Primary (Nebular) Characteristics of the CI Chondrites 114
        
        2.4.3.2.2 FINE-GRAINED MATERIALS IN CI CHONDRITES 115
        
        2.4.3.2.3 RELIC REFRACTORY INCLUSIONS IN CI CHONDRITES 115
        
        2.4.3.2.1 RELICT CHONDRULES IN CI CHONDRITES 115
      - 2.4.3.3 Asteroidal Chemical and Mineralogical Processes Affecting the CI Chondrites 116
        
        2.4.3.3.1 MODELS OF AQUEOUS ALTERATION PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CI CHONDRITES 116
        
        2.4.3.3.2 THERMAL AND HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM IN CI CHONDRITES 116
      - 2.4.3.4 Regolith Processes Affecting CI Chondrites 117
      - 2.4.3.5 Asteroidal Minerals in CI Chondrites: Nonsilicates 118
        
        2.4.3.5.1 CARBONATES IN CI CHONDRITES 118
        
        2.4.3.5.2 SULFIDES IN CI CHONDRITES 119
        
        2.4.3.5.3 FE-OXIDES IN CI CHONDRITES 119
      - 2.4.3.6 Asteroidal Minerals in CI Chondrites: Silicates 119
        
        2.4.3.6.1 PHYLLOSILICATES IN CI CHONDRITES 119
      - 2.4.3.8 Implications for Exploration of CI Chondrite Parent Bodies 120
      - 2.4.3.7 Terrestrial Chemical and Mineralogical Processes Affecting the CI Chondrites 120
        
        2.4.3.7.1 TERRESTRIAL PHASES IN CI CHONDRITES 120
    - 2.4.4 Physical Properties, Chemical Composition, Mineralogy of CR Chondrites and Processes Affecting These Meteorites 120
      - 2.4.4.1 Physical Properties of CR Chondrites 120
      - 2.4.4.2 Primary (Nebular) Characteristics of the CR Chondrites 122
        
        2.4.4.2.1 CHONDRULES IN CR CHONDRITES 124
        
        2.4.4.2.1.1 TYPE-I CHONDRULES 126
        
        2.4.4.2.1.2 FE–NI METAL IN TYPE-I CR CHONDRULES 127
        
        2.4.4.2.1.3 MESOSTASIS IN TYPE-I CR CHONDRULES 130
        
        2.4.4.2.1.4 TYPE-I CHONDRULE ISOTOPIC STUDIES 131
        
        2.4.4.2.1.5 TYPE-II CHONDRULES 132
        
        2.4.4.2.1.6 TYPE-II CHONDRULE OPAQUE ASSEMBLAGES 133
        
        2.4.4.2.1.7 TYPE-II CHONDRULE MESOSTASIS 133
        
        2.4.4.2.1.8 TYPE-II CHONDRULES ISOTOPES 134
        
        2.4.4.2.1.9 ANORTHITE-RICH CHONDRULES (ARCS) 135
        
        2.4.4.2.1.10 ANORTHITE-RICH CHONDRULE ISOTOPES 135
        
        2.4.4.2.2 FINE-GRAINED MATERIALS IN CR CHONDRITES 135
        
        2.4.4.2.2.1 INTERCHONDRULE MATRIX 136
        
        2.4.4.2.2.2 FINE-GRAINED RIMS IN CR CHONDRITES 136
        
        2.4.4.2.2.3 CARBONACEOUS MATERIALS IN CR CHONDRITE MATRICES 138
        
        2.4.4.2.3 REFRACTORY INCLUSIONS IN CR CHONDRITES 139
        
        2.4.4.2.4 ASTEROIDAL MINERALS: NON-SILICATES 140
        
        2.4.4.2.4.1 CARBONATES IN CR CHONDRITES 140
        
        2.4.4.2.4.2 SULFIDES AND TOCHILINITE IN CR CHONDRITES 140
        
        2.4.4.2.4.3 FE-OXIDES IN CR CHONDRITES 141
        
        2.4.4.2.5 ASTEROIDAL MINERALS IN CR CHONDRITES: SILICATES 141
        
        2.4.4.2.5.1 PHYLLOSILICATES IN CR CHONDRITE MATRICES 141
        
        2.4.4.2.5.2 PHYLLOSILICATES REPLACING CR CHONDRITE MESOSTASIS 142
        
        2.4.4.2.5.3 PHYLLOSILICATES REPLACING CR CHONDRITE CHONDRULE PHENOCRYSTS 142
        
        2.4.4.2.6 ASTEROIDAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CR CHONDRITES 143
        
        2.4.4.2.6.1 MODELS OF AQUEOUS ALTERATION PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CR CHONDRITES 143
        
        2.4.4.2.6.2 IMPACT-DRIVEN THERMAL METAMORPHISM IN CR CHONDRITES 145
        
        2.4.4.2.6.3 REGOLITH PROCESSES AFFECTING CR CHONDRITES 147
        
        2.4.4.2.6.3.1 Chondritic Dark Inclusions CR Chondrites 147
        
        2.4.4.2.6.3.2 Xenoliths From Planetary-Sized Bodies in CR Chondrites 148
        
        2.4.4.2.7 TERRESTRIAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CR CHONDRITES 150
        
        2.4.4.2.7.1 TERRESTRIAL NONSILICATES IN CR CHONDRITES 150
        
        2.4.4.2.7.2 TERRESTRIAL SILICATES IN CR CHONDRITES 151
        
        2.4.4.2.8 IMPLICATIONS FOR EXPLORATION OF CR PARENT BODIES 151
        
        2.4.5 Chemical Composition and Mineralogy of CO Chondrites and Processes Affecting These Meteorites 152
        
        2.4.5.1 Physical Properties of CO chondrites 152
        
        2.4.5.2 Primary (Nebular) Characteristics of the CO Chondrites 153
        
        2.4.5.2.1 CHONDRULES IN CO CHONDRITES 153
        
        2.4.5.2.1.1 OPAQUES IN CHONDRULES IN CO CHONDRITES 154
        
        2.4.5.2.1.2 MESOSTASIS IN CHONDRULES IN CO CHONDRITES 154
        
        2.4.5.2.2 FINE-GRAINED MATERIALS IN CO CHONDRITES 155
        
        2.4.5.2.2.1 FINE-GRAINED MATRIX IN CO CHONDRITES 155
        
        2.4.5.2.2.2 FINE-GRAINED RIMS IN CO CHONDRITES 155
        
        2.4.5.2.2.3 DARK INCLUSIONS (DIS) IN CO CHONDRITES 156
        
        2.4.5.2.3 REFRACTORY INCLUSIONS IN CO CHONDRITES 156
        
        2.4.5.2.3.2 AMOEBOID OLIVINE AGGREGATES (AOAS) IN CO CHONDRITES 156
        
        2.4.5.2.3.1 CA-, AL-RICH INCLUSIONS (CAIS) IN CO CHONDRITES 156
        
        2.4.5.2.4 ASTEROIDAL MINERALS 156
        
        2.4.5.2.4.1 SULFUR-BEARING PHASES IN CO CHONDRITES 156
        
        2.4.5.2.4.2 FE-OXIDES IN CO CHONDRITES 157
        
        2.4.5.2.4.3 FE-CARBIDES IN CO CHONDRITES 157
        
        2.4.5.2.5 PHYLLOSILICATES IN CO CHONDRITE MATRICES 157
        
        2.4.5.2.6 ASTEROIDAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CO CHONDRITES 157
        
        2.4.5.2.6.1 MODELS OF AQUEOUS ALTERATION PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CO CHONDRITES 157
        
        2.4.5.2.6.2 THERMAL AND HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM IN CO CHONDRITES 158
        
        2.4.5.2.7 TERRESTRIAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CO CHONDRITES 158
        
        2.4.5.2.7.1 TERRESTRIAL NONSILICATES IN CO CHONDRITES 158
        
        2.4.5.2.7.2 TERRESTRIAL SILICATES IN CO CHONDRITES 158
        
        2.4.6 Physical Properties, Chemical Composition, and Mineralogy of CV Chondrites and Processes Affecting These Meteorites 159
        
        2.4.6.1 Physical Properties of CV Chondrites 159
        
        2.4.6.2 Primary (Nebular) Characteristics of the CV Chondrites 160
        
        2.4.6.2.1 PRIMARY (NEBULAR) CHARACTERISTICS OF CV CHONDRITES 160
        
        2.4.6.2.1.1 CHONDRULES IN CV CHONDRITES 160
        
        2.4.6.2.1.3 REFRACTORY INCLUSIONS IN CV CHONDRITES 161
        
        2.4.6.2.1.2 FINE-GRAINED MATERIALS IN CV CHONDRITES 161
        
        2.4.6.2.2 ASTEROIDAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CV CHONDRITES 165
        
        2.4.6.4 Thermal and Hydrothermal Metamorphism in CV Chondrites 165
        
        2.4.6.3 Models of Aqueous Alteration Processes Affecting the CV Chondrites 165
        
        2.4.6.5 Asteroidal Minerals 166
        
        2.4.6.5.3 SULFIDES IN CV CHONDRITES 166
        
        2.4.6.5.2 CARBONATES IN CV CHONDRITES 166
        
        2.4.6.5.1 NONSILICATES 166
        
        2.4.6.5.4 FE-OXIDES AND PHOSPHATES IN CV CHONDRITES 167
        
        2.4.6.5.5 ASTEROIDAL MINERALS IN CV CHONDRITES: SILICATES 167
        
        2.4.6.5.5.1 PHYLLOSILICATES IN CV CHONDRITE MATRICES 167
        
        2.4.6.5.5.2 PHYLLOSILICATES REPLACING CAIS AND CHONDRULE MESOSTASES 167
        
        2.4.7 Chemical Composition and Mineralogy of CK Chondrites and Processes Affecting These Meteorites 168
        
        2.4.7.1 Physical Properties of CK Chondrites 168
        
        2.4.7.1.1 PRIMARY (NEBULAR) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CK CHONDRITES 169
        
        2.4.7.1.1.1 BULK COMPOSITIONS 169
        
        2.4.7.1.1.2 CHONDRULES IN CK CHONDRITES 170
        
        2.4.7.1.1.3 FINE-GRAINED MATERIALS IN CK CHONDRITES 171
        
        2.4.7.1.1.4 REFRACTORY INCLUSIONS IN CK CHONDRITES 172
        
        2.4.7.1.1.5 OPAQUE PHASES IN CK CHONDRITES 174
        
        2.4.7.1.2 ASTEROIDAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CK CHONDRITES 174
        
        2.4.7.1.2.1 MODELS OF AQUEOUS ALTERATION PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CK CHONDRITES 174
        
        2.4.7.1.2.3 THERMAL METAMORPHISM IN CK CHONDRITES 175
        
        2.4.7.1.2.2 OXIDATION STATE OF CK CHONDRITES 175
        
        2.4.7.1.2.4 POTENTIAL RELATIONSHIP WITH CV CHONDRITES 176
        
        2.4.7.1.2.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR EXPLORATION OF THE CK PARENT BODY 178
        
        2.4.7.1.3 TERRESTRIAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CK CHONDRITES 178
        
        2.4.8 Chemical and Mineralogical Processes Affecting the CB and CH Chondrites 179
        
        2.4.8.1 Physical Properties of CB and CH Chondrites 179
        
        2.4.8.2 Chemical and Mineralogical Characteristics of CB and CH Chondrites 179
        
        2.4.9 Physical Properties, Chemical, and Mineralogical Processes Affecting Unique Carbonaceous Chondrites Relevant to Space Expl 181
        
        2.4.9.1 Tagish Lake 181
        
        2.4.9.1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TAGISH LAKE AND AFFINITIES WITH OTHER CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITES 181
        
        2.4.9.1.1 RECOVERY OF TAGISH LAKE 181
        
        2.4.9.1.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TAGISH LAKE 181
        
        2.4.9.2 Kaidun 183
        
        2.4.9.2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF KAIDUN 183
        
        2.4.9.2.2 CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KAIDUN 183
        
        2.5 INSOLATION THERMAL METAMORPHIC OF HYDRATED CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITES 185
        
        2.6 SPACE WEATHERING OF CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITES 186
        
        References 187
        
        Further Reading 218
        
        3 - The Origin and Evolution of Organic Matter in Carbonaceous Chondrites and Links to Their Parent Bodies 219
        
        3.1 INTRODUCTION 219
        
        3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CHONDRITES AND IDPS AND POSTACCRETION PARENT BODY ALTERATION 222
        
        3.2.1 Classification 222
        
        3.2.2 Metamorphism and Aqueous Alteration 224
        
        3.2.2.1 Aqueous Alteration 224
        
        3.2.2.2 Metamorphism 226
        
        3.3 ORGANICS IN CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITES, COMETS, AND IDPS 226
        
        3.3.1 Insoluble Organic Matter 227
        
        3.3.1.1 Elemental and Molecular Compositions 227
        
        3.3.1.2 Isotopic Compositions 229
        
        3.3.1.3 Chemical Variations of IOM Among Different Meteorite Groups and Petrologic Types 231
        
        3.3.1.3.1 AQUEOUS ALTERATION 232
        
        3.3.1.3.2 THERMAL METAMORPHISM 233
        
        3.3.1.3.3 IMPACT-INDUCED DEHYDRATION 235
        
        3.3.1.4 Origin and Formation Pathways of Insoluble Organic Matter 236
        
        3.3.1.4.1 FORMATION IN INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM 236
        
        3.3.1.4.2 FORMATION IN THE SOLAR PROTOPLANETARY DISK 236
        
        3.3.2 Soluble Organic Matter 237
        
        3.3.2.1 Amino Acids, Formation Pathways, and Enantiomeric Excesses 237
        
        3.3.2.1.1 FORMATION PATHWAYS AND PROCESSING HISTORIES 240
        
        3.3.2.1.2 AMINO ACID ENANTIOMERIC EXCESSES AND THE ORIGIN OF HOMOCHIRALITY 245
        
        3.3.2.2 Aliphatic Amines and Amides 249
        
        3.3.2.2.1 AMINES 249
        
        3.3.2.2.2 ALKYL AMIDES 251
        
        3.3.2.3 Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbons 251
        
        3.3.2.3.1 ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS 251
        
        3.3.2.3.2 AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS 253
        
        3.3.2.4 Alcohols, Aldehydes, and Ketones 254
        
        3.3.2.5 Aliphatic Carboxylic and Hydroxy Acids 255
        
        3.3.2.5.1 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 255
        
        3.3.2.5.2 HYDROXY ACIDS 256
        
        3.3.2.6 Nitrogen Heterocycles 257
        
        3.3.2.8 Polyols and Sugar Acid Enantiomeric Excesses 260
        
        3.3.2.7 Alkyl Sulfonic and Phosphonic Acids 260
        
        3.4 CHEMICAL AND SPECTROSCOPIC LINKS BETWEEN METEORITES AND PARENT BODIES 262
        
        3.5 SAMPLE RETURN MISSIONS 263
        
        3.5.1 Stardust 263
        
        3.5.2 Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 265
        
        3.5.3 Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer 267
        
        3.6 CONCLUSIONS 267
        
        References 269
        
        Further Reading 285
        
        4 - Reflectance Spectroscopy of Chondrites 287
        
        4.1 INTRODUCTION 287
        
        4.1.1 Chondrite Classification and Nomenclature 290
        
        4.1.1.3 Rumuruti Chondrites 291
        
        4.1.1.1 Carbonaceous Chondrite Classification 291
        
        4.1.1.2 Ordinary Chondrite Classification 291
        
        4.1.1.5 Enstatite Chondrite Classification 292
        
        4.1.1.4 Kakangari Chondrites 292
        
        4.2 SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE PROPERTIES OF CHONDRITES 292
        
        4.2.1 Experimental Procedure 292
        
        4.2.2 Major Phases in Chondrites: Spectral Reflectance Properties 293
        
        4.2.3 Carbonaceous Chondrites 298
        
        4.2.3.1 CI Carbonaceous Chondrites 298
        
        4.2.3.2 CM Carbonaceous Chondrites 301
        
        4.2.3.3 CR Carbonaceous Chondrites 304
        
        4.2.3.4 Aqueously Altered and Thermally Metamorphosed Carbonaceous Chondrites 306
        
        4.2.3.5 CO Carbonaceous Chondrites 308
        
        4.2.3.6 CV Carbonaceous Chondrites 308
        
        4.2.3.7 CK Carbonaceous Chondrites 310
        
        4.2.3.8 CH Carbonaceous Chondrites 311
        
        4.2.3.9 CB Carbonaceous Chondrites 314
        
        4.2.3.10 Some Unique Carbonaceous Chondrites 316
        
        4.2.4 Ordinary Chondrites 320
        
        4.2.5 Rumuruthi Chondrites 322
        
        4.2.6 Kakangari Chondrites 322
        
        4.2.7 Enstatite Chondrites 323
        
        4.3 DISCUSSION 324
        
        4.3.1 Powdered Sample Grain Size Effects 325
        
        4.3.2 Viewing Geometry Effects on Chondrite Reflectance Spectra 327
        
        4.3.3 Physical Property Effects (Porosity/Packing and Duplicate Measurements) on CC Reflectance Spectra 330
        
        4.3.4 Space Weathering Effects on CC Reflectance Spectra 330
        
        4.3.5 Collisional Effects on Chondrite Reflectance Spectra 332
        
        4.3.6 Temperature Effects on Chondrite Reflectance Spectra 335
        
        4.3.8 Spectral Heterogeneity Within a Single CC 336
        
        4.3.7 Are CC Reflectance Spectra Really Featureless? 336
        
        4.3.9 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy of Chondrites 338
        
        4.3.10 Chondrites and Other Dark Meteorites: Ureilites 339
        
        4.4 RANGE OF SPECTRAL PROPERTIES OF CHONDRITES 339
        
        4.4.1 Carbonaceous Chondrites 340
        
        4.4.2 Ordinary Chondrites 345
        
        4.4.3 R Chondrites 346
        
        4.4.4 E Chondrites 347
        
        4.5 CHONDRITE–ASTEROID LINKAGES 347
        
        4.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 348
        
        References 349
        
        Acknowledgments 349
        
        Further Reading 356
        
        5 - Compositional Diversity Among Primitive Asteroids 359
        
        5.1 INTRODUCTION 359
        
        5.2 PRIMITIVE ASTEROID LOCATIONS 360
        
        5.2.1 Sources of Near-Earth Asteroids 360
        
        5.2.2 Inner-Belt Primitive Asteroids: Families and Background 361
        
        5.3 ULTRAVIOLET SPECTRA OF PRIMITIVE ASTEROIDS 364
        
        5.4 VISIBLE AND NEAR-INFRARED SPECTRA 366
        
        5.4.1 The Visible Region 367
        
        5.4.2 The Near-Infrared Region 369
        
        5.4.3 The 3-μm Region 370
        
        5.5 MID-INFRARED SPECTRA 371
        
        5.6 EFFECTS OF SPACE WEATHERING ON SPECTRAL OBSERVATIONS OF PRIMITIVE ASTEROIDS 375
        
        5.7 SUMMARY 377
        
        Acknowledgments 378
        
        References 379
        
        Further Reading 383
        
        6 - Linking Water-Rich Asteroids and Meteorites: Implications for Asteroid Space Missions 385
        
        6.1 INTRODUCTION 385
        
        2.4.6.5.6 TERRESTRIAL CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING THE CV CHONDRITES 168
        
        2.4.6.5.6.1 TERRESTRIAL NONSILICATES IN CV CHONDRITES 168
        
        2.4.6.5.6.2 TERRESTRIAL SILICATES IN CV CHONDRITES 168

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