Policy Issues in Genetically Modified Crops

Description

Policy Issues in Genetically Modified Crops: A Global Perspective contains both theoretical and empirical evidence of a broad range of aspects of GM crop policies throughout the world. Emphasizing world agriculture production and ethics of GM crops, the book balances insights into the various discussions around the use of GM crops, including soil health, effects on animals, environmental sustainability impact and ethical issues. This book will be useful for researchers in agricultural policy and economics, agricultural biotechnology, soil science, genetic engineering, ethics, environmental management, sustainable development and NGOs.

Discusses ethics, varieties, research trends, and success stories of genetic modification
Includes both crop production and human health impacts
Compares and contrasts GM policies from around the world

Cover 2
Titlepage 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 17
Preface 23
Section 1 Genetically modified crops: policies and politics 27
- Chapter 1 - Genetically Modified Crops and Agricultural Innovation: An Analysis of Law and Policy 29
  - 1 - Introduction 29
  - 2 - Evolution and development of GM crops 30
  - 3 - Changes brought about by GM crops in agricultural framework 31
  - 5 - Risk perceptions about GM crops and realty check 32
  - 4 - GM crops and scientific uncertainty 32
  - 6 - GM crops and agricultural innovation 33
  - 7 - Policy paradigm of agricultural innovation 34

Cover 2
Titlepage 5
Copyright 6
Contents 7
Contributors 17
Preface 23
Section 1 Genetically modified crops: policies and politics 27
- Chapter 1 - Genetically Modified Crops and Agricultural Innovation: An Analysis of Law and Policy 29
  - 1 - Introduction 29
  - 2 - Evolution and development of GM crops 30
  - 3 - Changes brought about by GM crops in agricultural framework 31
  - 5 - Risk perceptions about GM crops and realty check 32
  - 4 - GM crops and scientific uncertainty 32
  - 6 - GM crops and agricultural innovation 33
  - 7 - Policy paradigm of agricultural innovation 34
  - 8 - Regulatory issues relating to GM crops 36
  - 9 - IP landscape of GM crops 37
    - 9.1 - UPOV and plant varieties 39
    - 9.2 - Patents in agricultural biotechnology: discovery versus invention prong 40
    - 9.3 - Patent protection to plant genetic material 41
    - 9.4 - Overlapping of patents and plant variety legislations 43
  - 10 - GM crops and open innovation 46
  - 11 - Conclusion 49
  - References 52
- Chapter 2 - GMO Policies and Practices: A Global Overview with Special Focus on Turkey 55
  - 1 - Genetically modified crops: origin, growth, and adoption around the world 55
  - 2 - Regulatory environment 60
  - 3 - GM policy discussions, labeling debates, and consumers perceptions 62
    - 3.1 - Consumers’ perceptions of GMO benefits and risks 64
  - 4 - Genetically modified crops in Turkey: historical development, regulatory, and policy environment 67
    - 4.1 - Early debate on biotechnology in Turkey 67
    - 4.2 - Legislative history and practices in Turkey 70
    - 4.3 - Impact on trade 74
    - 4.4 - Current status of biotechnology in Turkey 77
  - 5 - Concluding remarks 77
  - References 78
- Chapter 3 - Status and Policies of GM Crops in Russia 83
  - 1 - Introduction 83
  - 2 - Public and scholarly opinion 86
  - 3 - Major case studies for genetically modified plants 87
  - 4 - Policies framework of genetically modified organisms in Russia 90
  - 5 - Regulation of genetically modified food crops/food products 90
  - 6 - Regulations of research, production marketing, and biosafety issues 92
  - 7 - Hierarchy of GM products management policy 93
  - 8 - Future perspectives 96
  - References 97
  - 9 - Conclusion 97
  - Acknowledgments 97
- Chapter 4 - Genetically Modified Crops in India: Politics, Policies, and Political Economy 101
  - 1 - Introduction 101
  - 2 - Historical background of GM crops in India 102
  - 3 - The narrative of biotechnology in India: social and political construction 108
  - 4 - Agribiotech and intellectual property rights: consequences for marginal farmers 111
  - 5 - Biosafety regulations in India: policies and political economy 115
  - 6 - Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India Bill 2013 (BRAI) 117
  - 7 - Conclusion 118
  - References 118
- Chapter 5 - Genetically Modified Crops and Intellectual Property Rights: Indian Scenario 123
  - 1 - Introduction 123
  - 2 - Patent rights and their scope 124
  - 3 - Trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS) agreement 125
  - 4 - GM crops, IP, and rural development 125
  - 5 - Legal analysis of the Indian plant patent regime 126
  - 6 - Plants and intellectual property protection 127
  - 7 - Patent protection to GM crops: position in India 128
  - 8 - Patentability of gene in India 130
  - 9 - Infringement under PPV&FR Act 131
  - 10 - Patents related to GM crops 131
  - 11 - Conclusion 132
  - References 133
- Section 2 Genetically modified crops and global food security 135
  - Chapter 6 - Contribution of Genetically Modified Crops in Agricultural Production: Success Stories 137
    - 1 - Introduction 137
    - 2 - GM cotton 138
    - 3 - GM soybean 142
    - 4 - GM maize 144
    - 5 - GM canola 147
    - 6 - GM rice 148
    - 7 - GM potatoes 153
    - 8 - GM papaya 154
    - 9 - GM eggplant 156
    - Acknowledgments 158
    - 10 - Conclusion 158
    - References 159
  - Genetically Modified Crops Changing the Food Insecurity Landscape of the Undernourished Regions of the World 169
    - 1 - World food insecurity: current scenario and strategies 169
    - 2 - Food insecurity landscape in the Asia and Africa 171
    - 3 - Green revolution: feeding the hungry and undernourished 173
    - 4 - Genetically engineered crops: a post green revolution 174
    - 5 - Evaluating gene flow and its impact 178
    - 6 - Rise of superweeds 179
    - 7 - The clean gene technology: development of cleaner GE crops 180
    - 8 - Steps toward sustainable agriculture 181
    - 9 - GM crops and the sustainable world 183
    - References 184
    - Acknowledgments 184
    - Further reading 186
  - Chapter 8 - Impact of GM Crops on Agriculture Production: A Positive Reflection through Success Stories 187
    - 1 - Introduction of GM crops in agriculture 187
    - 2 - GM crops commercialization in different countries 189
    - 3 - GMCs resistant to pests 190
    - 4 - Herbicide resistant GM crops 193
    - 5 - Crops engineered for nutritional amendments 196
    - 6 - GMCs with enhanced biofuel production 199
    - 7 - Status of GM crops in India 203
    - 8 - Conclusions 204
    - References 206
  - Chapter 9 - GM Crops as a Food Security Solution 215
    - 1 - Introduction 215
    - 2 - Bottleneck of conventional methods and modern breeding technique 216
    - 3 - Distribution of GM crops by countries 217
    - 4 - Global acceptance of soybean, maize, cotton, and canola developed through GE technique 218
    - 5 - GM crops and food safety 221
    - 6 - India-global production status of GM crops 221
    - 7 - Prominence of accepted crops obtained through GM technology used for food, feed, and cultivation 222
    - 9 - Contribution of Bt food crops for security and sustainability 223
    - 10 - Summary and conclusion 223
    - 8 - Economic benefits of GM crops 223
    - References 224
  - Section 3 Genetically modified crops and sustainability in agriculture 227
    - Chapter 10 - Genetically Modified Crops and Climate Change Adaptation 229
      - 1 - Introduction 229
      - 2 - Climate change: An immeasurable dynamism 231
      - 3 - An interface of crops and climate change: A loop of feedbacks 232
      - 4 - Genetically modified (GM) crop: An integration of green revolution or another level 233
      - 5 - Challenges behind developing GM crops against climate change: A multifaceted problem 255
      - Acknowledgment 256
      - References 256
      - 6 - Conclusions 256
    - Chapter 11 - Sustainable Cultivation of GM Crops in the Age of Climate Change: A Global Perspective 263
      - 1 - Introduction 263
      - 2 - Need of GMCs over conventional agricultural crops 266
        
        2.1 - Challenges associated with large-scale agricultural production 266
        
        2.2 - Solutions offered by GMCs 268
      - 3 - Controversies and problems associated with GMCs 271
        
        3.1 - Losey’s disagreement 271
        
        3.2 - Séralini controversy 272
        
        3.3 - A flawed technology 272
      - 4 - GMCs and climate change 274
        
        4.1 - Dissecting linkage between climate change and GMCs 274
        
        4.2 - Polarized global opinions 277
      - 5 - Is genomics a solution for making climate-ready crops? 280
        
        5.1 - Recognizing haplotypes/elite alleles 282
        
        5.2 - Genetic analysis of environmental change adaptability traits 283
        
        5.3 - Next-generation crop breeding approach 285
      - 6 - Conclusion 286
      - Acknowledgments 288
      - References 288
    - Chapter 12 - Aspects of Genetically Modified Plants in Removing Heavy Metals From the Soil 299
      - 1 - Introduction 299
      - 2 - Approaches for the restoration of contaminated soil 301
      - 3 - GM plants used for the removal of HMs from soil 303
      - 4 - Concerns in the use of GM organisms for remediation 307
      - Acknowledgment 308
      - References 308
      - 5 - Conclusion and future perspectives 308
    - Section 4 Genetically modified food: socio-ethical issues and regulatory challenges 317
      - Chapter 13 - Public Acceptance of GM Foods: A Global Perspective (1999–2019) 319
        
        1 - Introduction 319
        
        2 - Global overview on the acceptance level of GM foods 323
        
        2.1 - Europe 324
        
        2.2 - North America 324
        
        2.3 - Latin America 328
        
        2.4 - Asia 331
        
        3 - Conclusions 334
        
        References 335
      - Chapter 14 - Evolution of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and The Scared World 343
        
        Abbreviations 343
        
        1 - Introduction 343
        
        2 - A brief history of GM crops 345
        
        3 - Why do we need GM crops? 346
        
        3.1 - Population burst and increased food demand 346
        
        3.2 - Decreased farm-land 347
        
        3.3 - Conventional breeding limitations under changing climate 347
        
        3.4 - Pests and diseases 348
        
        4 - Public perception regarding GM crops: Myths versus evidences 348
        
        5 - Global impact of GM crops 351
        
        5.1 - Net production and income 351
        
        5.2 - Pesticide and herbicide use 352
        
        5.3 - Impact on environment 353
        
        6 - Current status of GM crops 353
        
        7 - Conclusions 355
        
        References 356
        
        Acknowledgments 356
      - Chapter 15 - Assessment of the Environmental and Health Impacts of Genetically Modified Crops 361
        
        1 - Introduction 361
        
        2 - Impact of GM crops on the environment 367
        
        2.1 - Assessing the impact of GM crops through gene flow 368
        
        2.2 - Assessing other environmental impacts of GM crops 370
        
        2.2.1 - Effect on beneficial microorganisms 371
        
        2.2.2 - Effect on endophytes and epiphytes 371
        
        2.2.3 - Indirect effects 372
        
        3 - Impact of GM crops on human health 372
        
        3.2 - Allergenicity from GM products 373
        
        3.1 - Impact of antibiotic resistance genes 373
        
        4 - Policy issues in adoption of GM crops 374
        
        5 - Conclusions 375
        
        Acknowledgments 376
        
        References 376
        
        Chapter 16 - Food Safety Issues and Challenges of GM Crops 381
        
        1 - Introduction 381
        
        2 - What are GM crops and their advantages? 382
        
        3 - Why GM crops have become so controversial? 386
        
        4 - GM crops and the environment 386
        
        5 - GM crops and biodiversity 389
        
        6 - GM crops and their impact on health 390
        
        7 - Conclusion 392
        
        Acknowledgments 393
        
        References 393
        
        Chapter 17 - Health Risks and Environmental Concerns of GM Crop Adoption 397
        
        1 - Introduction 397
        
        2 - Environmental implications of GM crops 401
        
        2.1 - Direct impact of GM crops on environment 402
        
        2.1.1 - Transgenes transfer and genetic hazards of GM Crops 402
        
        2.1.2 - Generation of super-weeds due to GM crops 404
        
        2.1.3 - Effects of GM crops on non-targeted organisms 405
        
        2.1.4 - Toxicity of GM crops to environment 405
        
        2.2 - Indirect impact of GM crops on environment 406
        
        2.2.1 - Soil and water contamination due to GM crops 407
        
        2.2.2 - Loss of biodiversity and GM crops 407
        
        2.2.3 - Development of herbicides, pesticides, and insecticides resistant varieties 408
        
        3 - Health implications of GM crops 409
        
        3.1 - Negative impacts of GM crops on health 409
        
        3.1.1 - Endogenous toxins in plants 409
        
        3.1.2 - Genetic hazard due to GM crops 410
        
        3.1.3 - Allergenicity due to GM crops 411
        
        3.1.4 - Toxicity of GM crops on human health 413
        
        3.1.4.1 - Toxicity to different organs and tissue due to GM crops 413
        
        3.1.4.2 - Developmental and reproductive toxicity 414
        
        3.2 - Positive impacts of GM crops on health 415
        
        3.2.2 - Enhancement in food processing 415
        
        3.2.1 - Lesser exposure of farmers to insecticide and herbicide 415
        
        3.2.3 - Therapeutics benefits 416
        
        3.2.4 - Enhanced nutritional content 416
        
        4 - Global political, socioeconomic, and ethical concern in GM plant adaptation 416
        
        5 - Conclusion 418
        
        References 420
        
        Chapter 18 - Regulatory Framework for GMOs-Interplay Between Regulatory Policies and Socio-Ethical Concern 427
        
        1 - Introduction 427
        
        2 - Social concern 429
        
        2.1 - Consumer’s perspective 429
        
        2.2 - Farmer’s concern 430
        
        2.3 - Potent allergen 431
        
        2.4 - Toxic effects 431
        
        2.5 - Pesticide resistance 432
        
        2.6 - Religious influence 432
        
        2.7 - Ecological imbalance 433
        
        3 - Ethical concern 434
        
        3.1 - Patenting rights 434
        
        3.2 - Genetic contamination 434
        
        3.3 - Role of multinational companies 435
        
        4 - Biosafety evaluation and regulatory mechanism 435
        
        4.1 - Food safety 436
        
        4.2 - Environment safety 436
        
        4.3 - Regulatory bodies, their rules, regulations, and mandates 437
        
        4.3.1 - USA 437
        
        4.3.2 - Europe 438
        
        4.3.3 - Australia 438
        
        4.3.4 - Asia 439
        
        4.4 - Labeling of genetically modified products 440
        
        5 - Conclusion 441
        
        References 442
        
        Chapter 19 - Socio-Ethical Aspect of Genetically Modified Organisms: A Critical Analysis 447
        
        1 - Introduction 447
        
        2 - Biotechnology—scientific and ethical issues 449
        
        2.1 - Conflict of interest 449
        
        2.2 - Biosafety issues 450
        
        3 - GM crops—beyond guidelines 451
        
        3.1 - Public health concerns 451
        
        3.2 - Biotechnology and food security 452
        
        3.3 - GM crops and the environment 453
        
        3.4 - Vicious circle of herbicides 456
        
        3.5 - Silent spring-revisited 457
        
        3.6 - Biodiversity and transgenics 457
        
        3.7 - Economy of transgenic crops 459
        
        3.8 - Socio-economic impacts of GM crop 461
        
        3.9 - Intellectual property rights and privatization 463
        
        3.10 - Technology of genetic use restriction 466
        
        3.11 - Gene editing (CRISPR/Cas) 467
        
        3.12 - GM crops-inevitability of a new approach 468
        
        4 - Concluding remarks 469
        
        References 471
        
        Section 5 Technical advancements in plant genetic engineering and crop improvement 477
        
        Chapter 20 - Research Trends in Genetically Modified (GM) Plants 479
        
        1 - Introduction 479
        
        2 - Breakthrough and progress made in plant transformation and genome editing 481
        
        3 - Empowering plant genome engineering through synthetic biology 483
        
        4 - Tools for synthetic biology in plants 486
        
        4.1 - Synthetic sensor and receptor proteins 486
        
        4.3 - Synthetic genes/genomes 487
        
        4.2 - Synthetic metabolic and signaling pathways 487
        
        5 - Genome editing with site-specific nucleases 488
        
        5.1 - Meganucleases (MNs) 488
        
        5.2 - Zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) 490
        
        5.3 - Transcription-activator like effector nucleases (TALENs) 490
        
        6 - CRISPR/CAS system as a three-dimensional tool for targeting gene at omics level 491
        
        6.1 - Plant genome editing by CRISPR/CAS system 492
        
        Acknowledgments 496
        
        7 - Conclusion 496
        
        References 497
        
        Further reading 506
        
        Chapter 21 - Nano-Biotechnological Approach of Plant Genetic Engineering 507
        
        1 - Introduction 507
        
        2 - Traditional practices of plant genetic engineering and its limitation 508

A Global Perspective

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