Soil Pollution

Opis

Soil Pollution: From Monitoring to Remediation provides comprehensive information on soil pollution, including causes, distribution, transport, the transformation and fate of pollutants in soil, and metabolite accumulation. The book covers organic, inorganic and nanoparticle pollutants and methodologies for their monitoring. Features a critical discussion on ecotoxicological and human effects of soil pollution, and strategies for soil protection and remediation. Meticulously organized, this is an ideal resource for students, researchers and professionals, providing up-to-date foundational content for those already familiar with the field. Chapters are highly accessible, offering an authoritative introduction for non-specialists and undergraduate students alike.

Highlights the relevance of soil pollution for a sustainable environment in chapters written by interdisciplinary expert academics and professionals from around the world
Includes cases studies of techniques used to monitor soil pollution
Includes a chapter on nanoparticles as soil pollutants
Offers comprehensive coverage of soil pollution including types and causes

Spis treści

Front Cover 2
Soil Pollution 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
List of Contributors 11
Short Biographies 15
Preface 17
1 Soil and Pollution: An Introduction to the Main Issues 19
- 1.1 General Aspects of Soil 19
  - 1.1.1 Soil as a vital resource 19
  - 1.1.2 Soil quality 20
  - 1.1.3 Soil contamination as a major pressure 20
- 1.2 Soil Pollution: Major Causes 23
  - 1.2.1 Types of contaminants 23
  - 1.2.2 Origin and sources of soil pollution 28

Front Cover 2
Soil Pollution 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 7
List of Contributors 11
Short Biographies 15
Preface 17
1 Soil and Pollution: An Introduction to the Main Issues 19
- 1.1 General Aspects of Soil 19
  - 1.1.1 Soil as a vital resource 19
  - 1.1.2 Soil quality 20
  - 1.1.3 Soil contamination as a major pressure 20
- 1.2 Soil Pollution: Major Causes 23
  - 1.2.1 Types of contaminants 23
  - 1.2.2 Origin and sources of soil pollution 28
  - 1.2.3 Transport and fate of pollutants 32
- 1.3 Potential Effects on the Environment and Human Health 34
  - 1.3.1 Tools to assess risks 36
    - 1.3.1.1 Environmental risk assessment 36
    - 1.3.1.2 Human health risk assessment 37
  - 1.4 Strategies and Policies for Soil Protection 39
  - Acknowledgments 41
  - References 41
- 2 Distribution, Transport and Fate of Pollutants 47
  - 2.1 Soil Pollution Overview 47
    - 2.1.1 Soil concept and characteristics 47
    - 2.1.2 Types of pollutants 48
      - 2.1.2.1 Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) 48
      - 2.1.2.2 Organic pollutants (OPs) 50
    - 2.1.3 Conceptual soil pollution model 51
  - 2.2 Factors Affecting Soil Pollutants Distribution, Transport and Fate 53
    - 2.2.1 Key physical and chemical properties of soils 53
      - 2.2.1.1 Soil texture 54
      - 2.2.1.2 Soil structure 54
      - 2.2.1.3 Solid, liquid, and gaseous phases 55
      - 2.2.1.4 pH 56
      - 2.2.1.5 Redox potential (Eh) 56
      - 2.2.1.6 Cation exchange capacity 57
      - 2.2.1.7 Soil organic matter 58
      - 2.2.1.8 Clay minerals 59
      - 2.2.1.9 Al-, Fe-(oxy)hydroxides 59
    - 2.2.2 Soil–pollutant interactions processes 60
      - 2.2.2.1 Release processes 60
        
        Hydrolysis 60
        
        Photodegradation 61
        
        Biodegradation 61
        
        Redox reactions 61
        
        Dissolution 62
        
        Volatilization 62
      - 2.2.2.2 Retention processes 63
        
        Adsorption 63
        
        Precipitation/surface precipitation 64
        
        Incorporation into biological agents (bioaccumulation) 65
      - 2.3 Soil Pollutants Transport 66
        
        2.3.1 Migration pathways 66
        
        2.3.1.1 Wind transport 67
        
        2.3.1.2 Erosion and mass wasting 67
        
        2.3.1.3 Water transport 67
        
        2.3.2 Processes involved in pollutants transport 68
        
        2.3.2.1 Advection, dispersion, and diffusion 68
        
        2.3.2.2 Colloid-facilitated transport 68
        
        2.4 Methodologies for Modeling Pollutants Leaching and Transport: An Overview 68
        
        References 70
        
        Acknowledgments 70
      - 3 Changes in Soil Ecosystem Structure and Functions Due to Soil Contamination 77
        
        3.1 Introduction 77
        
        3.2 Soil Ecosystem Structure 79
        
        3.2.1 Soil structure 79
        
        3.2.2 Soil biodiversity 79
        
        3.2.3 Soil food webs 81
        
        3.2.4 Relationships between soil ecosystem structure and functions 82
        
        3.2.5 Effects of contaminants on soil ecosystem structure 83
        
        3.3 Soil Ecosystem Functions 84
        
        3.3.1 Carbon transformations 85
        
        3.3.2 Nutrient cycling 89
        
        3.3.3 Soil structure maintenance 90
        
        3.3.4 Biological population regulation 92
        
        3.4 Soil Ecosystem Services 93
        
        3.4.1 Provisioning services 94
        
        3.4.2 Regulating services 95
        
        3.4.3 Supporting services 95
        
        3.4.4 Cultural services 96
        
        Acknowledgments 96
        
        References 96
      - 4 Pollutants Transformation and Metabolite Accumulation in Soils 107
        
        4.1 Introduction 107
        
        4.2 Transformation of Pollutants and Respective Formation of Metabolites in Soils 107
        
        4.2.1 Determination of pollutants, their transformation products and metabolites in soils 110
        
        4.2.2 Mechanisms underlying transformation of pollutants and metabolites formation in soils 113
        
        4.2.3 Biological degradation 113
        
        4.2.4 Chemical degradation: photolysis and hydrolysis 115
        
        4.3 Conclusions and Perspectives 115
        
        References 116
        
        Acknowledgments 116
      - 5 Organic Pollutants in Soils 121
        
        5.1 Introduction 121
        
        5.2 Sources, Behavior, and Fate of OPs in Soils 122
        
        5.2.1 OPs and their implication in soil pollution 122
        
        5.2.2 Effect of soil composition in limiting organic pollution 127
        
        5.3 Analytical Strategies for Determining OPs in Soils 129
        
        5.3.1 Sample handling/treatment for OP analysis 129
        
        5.3.2 Identification and quantification of OPs 136
        
        5.4 Concluding Remarks 138
        
        Acknowledgments 139
        
        References 139
      - 6 Inorganic Pollutants in Soils 145
        
        6.1 Introduction 145
        
        6.2 Sources and Levels of Potential Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Soils 146
        
        6.3 Methodologies for Monitoring PTEs in Soils 148
        
        6.4 Case Study: Copper in Douro Vineyards Soils 152
        
        6.4.1 Background information 152
        
        6.4.2 Results and discussion 153
        
        6.4.3 Final remarks 157
        
        6.5 Case Study: Sources and Spatial Distribution of Cr and Pb in Athens Soil 157
        
        6.5.1 Background information 157
        
        6.5.2 Comparison of variability and spatial patterns of Cr and Pb in soil 158
        
        6.5.3 Implications for sampling protocols and risk assessment 163
        
        6.6 Case Study: Arsenic and Metal Soil Contamination in a Historical Mining Zone (Zimapán, Mexico) 164
        
        6.6.1 Introduction 164
        
        6.6.2 Site description 165
        
        6.6.3 Occurrence of Arsenic and other PTEs in Zimapán soils 166
        
        Acknowledgments 170
        
        References 171
      - 7 Nanomaterials as Soil Pollutants 179
        
        7.1 Introduction 179
        
        7.2 Routes of Entry of ENM into Soil During Nano-enabled Products Life Cycle 180
        
        7.2.2 Uncontrolled release during the end-of-life 181
        
        7.2.1 Uncontrolled release during the use phase 181
        
        7.2.3 Controlled release 182
        
        7.3 Fate in Soil 182
        
        7.3.1 Deposition and transport 182
        
        7.3.2 Environmental transformations of NP 186
        
        7.3.3 Aging of NM in soil 186
        
        7.4 Bioavailability of ENM 187
        
        7.5 Biological Interactions of ENM in Soils 189
        
        7.6 Exposure and Hazard Assessment of ENM 191
        
        7.7 Toxicokinetics of ENM 195
        
        7.8 Trophic Transfer of ENM 199
        
        Acknowledgments 201
        
        References 201
      - 8 Ecotoxicological Effects and Risk Assessment of Pollutants 209
        
        8.1 Soil Ecotoxicology in Risk Assessment: Applications and Developments 209
        
        8.2 Frameworks, Legal Support, and Implementation of ERA 216
        
        8.2.1 Europe 216
        
        8.2.1.1 Prospective ERA 216
        
        8.2.1.2 Retrospective ERA 218
        
        8.2.1.3 Derivation and implementation of guidelines 220
        
        8.2.2 USA 221
        
        8.2.2.1 Prospective chemical ERA 221
        
        8.2.2.2 Retrospective chemical ERA 223
        
        8.2.3 Brazil 224
        
        8.3 Future Perspectives 227
        
        Acknowledgments 229
        
        References 230
      - 9 Human Health Risks and Soil Pollution 235
        
        9.1 Introduction 235
        
        9.2 Human Health Risks from Soil Pollution 236
        
        9.2.1 Overview of relevant pollutants and their pathways into the environment 236
        
        9.2.2 Routes of entry/exposure pathways 238
        
        9.3 Factors Affecting Potential Human Health Hazardous Effects 239
        
        9.3.1 Toxicity of soil pollutants 239
        
        9.3.2 Fraction of the soil pollutant which is available for humans 241
        
        9.3.3 Other factors 244
        
        9.4 Tools to Assess Human Health Risks 244
        
        9.4.1 Regulatory frameworks 244
        
        9.4.2 Soil screening values/Guideline values 246
        
        9.4.3 Tools to assess fate and exposure to soil pollutants 248
        
        9.4.3.1 Methods for characterizing the fate of pollutants in soils 248
        
        9.4.3.2 Methods to determine soil–plant transfer of soil pollutants (models/uptake modeling) 249
        
        9.4.3.3 Methods to measure oral bioavailability/bioaccessibility 250
        
        9.4.3.4 Exposure modeling 252
        
        9.4.4 Site-specific assessment 254
        
        9.5 Inclusion of Site-Specific Bioavailability Measurements in Risk Assessment 255
        
        9.6 Emerging Issues and Case Studies 256
        
        9.6.1 Urban soils’ pollution and human health 256
        
        9.6.2 Bioavailability of mercury in soils 257
        
        9.6.3 Fate and uptake of engineered nanomaterials from soils 259
        
        Acknowledgments 260
        
        9.7 Conclusions 260
        
        References 261
        
        Further Reading 268
      - 10 Strategies for Soil Protection and Remediation 269
        
        10.1 Introduction 269
        
        10.2 Phytoremediation Techniques and Principles 270
        
        10.2.1 Fundamentals of phytoremediation 270
        
        10.2.2 Plant selection 272
        
        10.2.3 Improvement of phytoremediation techniques 273
        
        10.3 Assisted Phytostabilization in Mine-Contaminated Soils 275
        
        10.3.2 Fundamentals of phytostabilization 275
        
        10.3.2.1 Soil amendments 275
        
        10.3.2.2 Plants 277
        
        10.3.2.3 Limitations of aided [assisted] phytostabilization 277
        
        10.3.1 Introduction 275
        
        10.3.3 Case study 1 279
        
        10.3.3.1 Context and description of the case study 279
        
        10.3.3.2 Greenhouse pot experiment 281
        
        10.3.3.3 Field experiment 283
        
        10.3.4 Case study 2 285
        
        10.3.4.1 Context and description of the case study 285
        
        10.3.4.2 Resulting findings 287
        
        10.4 Industrially Contaminated Site Remediation 289
        
        10.4.1 Introduction 289
        
        10.4.2 Context and description of the case study 290
        
        10.5 Sustainable Management Systems and Environmental Policies for Soil Protection 291
        
        References 294
        
        Acknowledgments 294
        
        Index 301
        
        Back Cover 315

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From Monitoring to Remediation

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